In what language was ancient Russian literature written? Old Russian literature - what is it? Works of ancient Russian literature

1.Borders and periodization of ancient Russian literature. Characteristics of the main stages.

According to many researchers, ancient Russian literature developed in the 10th century, but the works of this period have not reached us. Old Russian literature is the literature of the Russian Middle Ages, which has gone through a long seven-century path in its development, from the 11th century. to the 17th century

Already in the middle of the 17th century, new trends in literature began, oriented towards the West. But it was decided to include all the literature of the 17th century in the study and consider it as a transitional period. During the period of the formation of literature, its “apprenticeship”, the center of political and cultural life was Kyiv, “the mother of Russian cities”, therefore the literature of the 11th - first third of the 12th centuries. usually called literature of Kievan Rus This period is characterized by the relative unity of literature, which is determined by the interconnection of the two main cultural centers of the state - Kyiv and Novgorod. This is a period of apprenticeship, with Byzantium and Bulgaria acting as mentors. Translated literature predominates. It is first dominated by religious texts, and then secular literature appears. The main theme is the theme of the Russian land and its position in the family of Christian peoples.

Literature from the era of feudal fragmentation (second third of the 12th-first third of the 13th century). This period is associated with the emergence of regional literary centers in Vladimir, Rostov, Smolensk, etc. There has been a process of “dissimilarity” of the styles of Russian chronicle writing, hagiography, and oratory. The monumental-historical style dominates in literature. The most significant literary monuments of this period are “The Prayer of Daniel the Prisoner”, “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu”, “Zadonshchina”, “Walking across the Three Seas”, “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia”.

Literature from the era of the Tatar-Mongol invasion (second third of 13-1380). During this period, the main theme of literature is heroic, and the monumental-historical style acquires a tragic connotation and lyrical emotion.

Literature from the era of the Battle of Kulikovo (1380-80s of the 15th century). This is a time of creative quest and discovery in literature, which is caused by the rise of national consciousness and the rise of Moscow. A new moral ideal of the era is emerging, which is reflected in the lives of the saints Epiphanius the Wise. The reader's interest in fiction and historical-journalistic literature is growing.

Literature of the Moscow centralized state (late 15th-16th century). This stage was characterized by an unprecedented flourishing of journalism, because there were many problems in the state. Tradition begins to prevail over the new, literature is going through a period of new monumentalism, and interest in the biographies of historical figures is emerging.

Literature of the transitional stage (17th century). During this period, there is a clash between new and old principles of artistic creativity. The development of the individual principle is visible in everything. After Nikon's church reform, literature was divided into democratic and official. The autobiographical principle is rapidly growing, and attention to the person’s personality appears.

2. The main features of Old Russian literature and its artistic method.

The literature of other Rus' set as its goal the creation of a spiritual ideal of man. There were almost no portraits in literature (only those based on comparison or by mixing the internal and external characteristics of a person), landscape was used quite rarely and only for a symbolic purpose (except for the genre of walking). There was no satire in the works, there were only elements of humor and irony, only in the 17th century. satirical stories appeared. The purpose of writing any work was to teach. Up to the 17th century. there was no conscious fiction in literature; historicism was mandatory in works. But the literature was filled with legends. Literature also had obligatory features: journalisticism, patriotism, and traditionalism. Old Russian literature was anonymous and handwritten. The author of most works is unknown.

3. The originality of the system of genres of ancient Russian literature and the characteristics of the main genres. Article by N.I. Prokofiev “On the worldview of the Russian Middle Ages and the system of genres of Russian literature XI - X V1st century."

In ancient Russian literature, several systems of genres existed and interacted: folklore and business writing, translated and original literature, both liturgical and secular in nature. The basis for identifying genres was the object of the image. Lyrical genres: teachings and messages. Teaching is a genre designed to convey a system of political, religious or moral views to listeners or readers. They were didactic and solemn. An epistle is a genre intended for telling about events or expressing thoughts to an addressee remote from the author. It consists of 4 parts: escript (external address), prescript (introduction, appeal), semantheme (content of the message), clause (good wish). There were also inserted genres, for example, crying, praise, prayer. Epic genres: hagiography is a genre telling about the life of a real person, canonized after death. Composition of the life: introduction (self-deprecation of the author, many topoi, appeal to God for help), central narrative (story or mention of parents, story about childhood, the life of the hero, his death and posthumous miracles), conclusion (praise or prayer to the saint). Walking is a genre that tells about a real-life journey. There are different types: pilgrimage, merchant, embassy, ​​and exploration. In composition, it is a chain of travel sketches connected chronologically or topographically. A historical story is a genre that tells about a historical event. It is divided into a military story and a story about princely and boyar crimes. Composition - preparation of the event, narration about the event, consequences of the event. The narrator, as a rule, is a mysterious person. There is also another epic genre - the parable. Symbolic genres – vision, miracle, sign. Other genres are chronicle (could include all genres), patericon (stories about the life of monks).

4.Genre of teaching in literatureXI- XIIcenturies Solemn teachings of Hilarion and Cyril of Turov.

Teaching is a genre intended to convey a certain system of ideas to the reader or listener.
1 type - ceremonial (church and state problems)
Type 2 - didactic (moral and everyday problems)

The monument of oratorical prose of Kievan Rus belongs to the solemn eloquence “The Sermon on Law and Grace of Metropolitan Hilarion” - affirms the idea of ​​equality of Rus' and the Russian people with all other Christian states and peoples. Comparison of the Old and New Testaments. Assessment of the actions of Vladimir. Teaching against Judaism. The word is full of quotes and detailed comparisons from biblical texts; it activates the reader’s perception due to the abundance of rhetorical figures.

Teachings of Kirill of Turov. See summary 7 Kirill is an original thinker and artist. Perhaps, until Derzhavin, a writer of such strength, significance and height of moral feeling as Kirill, the conscience of his difficult and turbulent time, had not appeared in Russian literature. He subtly uses the wealth of traditional poetic means to create a text that is polyphonic in meaning and feeling. Here the lofty and everyday plans seem to coexist, signifying the endless struggle between good and evil.

5. Characteristics of the genre of life. “The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk”: composition, image of the main character, style. Genre originality of “The Tale of Boris and Gleb.”

Life- a genre that tells about the life of a historical person who was canonized after death. A strict canon of writing, 3 parts in the composition: introduction (author's self-deprecation, prayer, about sources), biography of the saint (childhood, parents, growing up, life path, exploits, about death and posthumous miracles), praise or prayer to the saint.

About the works, see in the future

The problem of the time of creation, the genre originality of “The Tale of Boris and Gleb”.

A whole series of works in Russian literature is dedicated to Boris and Gleb. In addition to the chronicle stories, it includes the “Reading about the life and destruction” of Boris and Gleb, written by Nestor, the anonymous “Tale and Passion and Praise” to the saints, which in the Assumption collection is adjoined by the “Tale of Miracles”, which arose on the basis of records compiled at different times. The question of the relationship and chronology of individual works that make up the Boris-Gleb cycle is very complex. There are several versions. According to the first, first the “Tale” arose (at the end of the reign of Yaroslav the Wise), then the “Tale of Miracles”, and on this basis Nestor wrote “Reading”. According to the second version, “Reading” first appeared (at the end of the 11th century), together with the chronicle story, serving as a source for the author of the “Tale.” But there is no consensus. The most literary monument of the Boris-Gleb cycle is considered to be the anonymous “Tale”, the author of which focused mainly on the spiritual side of this historical drama. The task of the hagiographer is to depict the suffering of the saints and show the greatness of their spirit in the face of inevitable death. Boris knows in advance about Svyatopolk’s plans to kill him, and he is faced with the choice of either going to “fight Kyiv” and killing him, or with his death to initiate Christian relations between the princes - humility and submission to the elder. Boris chooses martyrdom. The psychological complexity of this choice is shown, which makes the picture of his death truly tragic, and to enhance the impact on the reader, the author repeats the scene of the prince’s murder three times. There are a lot of prayers in “The Legend,” Boris prays especially with inspiration before his death. The intonations of crying literally permeate the “Tale”, defining the main tone of the narrative. All this corresponds to the hagiographic canon. But the work is also characterized by a tendency towards individualization of the hagiographic hero, which contradicted the canon, but corresponded to the truth of life. The image of the younger brother Gleb did not duplicate the hagiographic characteristics of the elder. Gleb is more inexperienced than his brother, so he has complete confidence in Svyatopolk. Later, Gleb cannot suppress his fear of death and begs the killers for mercy. The author created one of the first psychological portraits in Russian literature, rich in the subtle emotional experiences of the hero. For Gleb, the destiny of a martyr is still premature. The depiction of the hagiographic anti-hero Svyatopolk is psychologically reliable. He is obsessed with envy and pride, he thirsts for power, and therefore is characterized by the epithets “cursed”, “despicable”. For the crime he committed, he bears a well-deserved punishment. Yaroslav the Wise defeats him, and Svyatopolk dies on the run. He is contrasted with Boris and Gleb, and Yaroslav, who became an instrument of divine retribution for the murderer. In order to surround the heroes with an aura of holiness, the author at the end talks about their posthumous miracles and praises them, putting them on a par with famous church figures. Unlike the traditional hagiography, the “Tale” does not describe the lives of the heroes from birth, but speaks only of their villainous murder. Pronounced

Historicism also contradicts the canons of life. Therefore, we can say that “The Tale” combines both hagiographic elements and elements of divergence from the canon, which reveals the genre originality of this work.

Hagiography is a genre that tells about the life of a real historical figure, canonized after death. Russian hagiographies developed on the basis of Byzantine ones. The genre took shape in the first centuries of Christianity and was supposed to serve as an illustration of Christian commandments. In the first lives, many miracles repeated the miracles of Christ. They were simple in form, but gradually they became more complex. Signs of life: idealization (ideal saints, ideal evil); in composition - strict adherence to the canons (introduction - many topoi, self-deprecation of the author, appeal to God for help; central narrative - a story or mention of parents; a story about the hero’s childhood; a story about his life and exploits; a story about death and posthumous miracles; conclusion -praise or prayer to a saint); the narrator is always an educated and well-read person, distancing himself from the hero, providing information about himself, clearly expressing his position in relation to the hero with the help of biblical quotes; the language is Church Slavonic and lively spoken, with extensive use of tropes and biblical quotations. “The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk” was written by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor. Following the genre canon, the author filled the life with traditional images and motifs. In the introduction, he self-deprecates; in stories about his childhood, Theodosius talks about his spirituality, talks about posthumous miracles. But Nestor violates one of the main rules of the genre - to depict -> a saint outside the specific signs of time and peoples. The author strives to convey the flavor of the era, which turns the work into a source of valuable historical information. From it we learn what charter regulated life in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, how the monastery grew and became rich, intervened in the struggle of the princes for the Kiev table, and contributed to the development of book publishing in Rus'. The main part of the life sometimes resembles the “hagiographical chronicle” of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery, because includes stories about spiritual mentors, associates and students of Theodosius. In addition to the monastic life of Theodosius, his participation in the political life of Rus' is shown, which also increases the value of the “Life” as a literary monument.

“Life” laid the foundation for the development of the genre of venerable life in Russian literature.

6. “Teaching to Your Children” by Vladimir Monomakh. Composition, style, elements of autobiography.

“The Instruction” of Vladimir Monomakh is a wonderful monument of secular “educational” literature. It is written in the form of a lesson for children. The advice given in it reflected not only his experience as a statesman, a far-sighted politician and commander, but also his literary education, writing talent, and his ideas about the moral character of a Christian. This “Teaching” has come down to us in the Laurentian Chronicle. Compositionally, it consists of 3 parts: the actual teaching; Monomakh's story about his life, including his campaigns; letter from Monomakh to Oleg Svyatoslavich. At the same time, parts 2-3 serve as an illustration of the advice in part 1. Chronologically, these parts were arranged in a different sequence. There is a version that the “Letter” was written first, then the main part, the teaching itself. And lastly, an autobiographical part was created, where Monomakh summed up his work. For the edification of his contemporaries and descendants, Monomakh created the image of an ideal prince who cared about the glory and honor of the Russian land. He unquestioningly obeys his elders, lives in peace with his equal princes, strictly observes the Christian commandments and works incessantly. The autobiographical part contains many descriptions of the prince’s battles and campaigns. Stories about these campaigns are in the form of a list, with virtually no concentration on details. This part ends with praise to God and gratitude that God protected him all his life. Vladimir Monomakh was fluent in different styles of speech, varying them in the “Instruction” depending on the topic and genre. The autobiographical part is written simply, in artless language, close to colloquial. “High syllable” is characteristic of ethical-philosophical reasoning, permeated with biblical quotations and rhythmically organized. Many fragments of the message to Oleg Svyatoslavich are permeated with a subtle lyrical feeling, for example, the request to release Izyaslav’s widow to him in order to mourn him together.

The “teaching” of Vladimir Monomakh went beyond the scope of a private document. It has a philosophical depth of reflection about God and man, life and death, valuable practical advice that has not lost its meaning, poetic imagery of style, and autobiographical elements, which helped the “Message” enter the “golden fund” of world literature.

7. The originality of “The Tale of Bygone Years” as a chronicle collection: themes, composition, intra-genre composition.

The appearance of each genre in literature is historically determined. Chronicle writing in Rus' arose from the need of early feudal society to have its own written history and was associated with the growth of national self-awareness of the Russian people. The question of the time of the emergence of Russian chronicles is considered controversial in science. Scattered records of historical events apparently existed already in the 10th century, but chronicle writing was not yet purposeful. It acquired it during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, at the beginning of the 11th century. the name of the first of the chronicles that have come down to us from the beginning of the 12th century. has the title “The Tale of Bygone Years of the Monk Fedosev of the Pechersk Monastery, from where the Russian land came...who began to live in it, and from where the Russian land began to eat.” In ancient times, the title indicated the main theme rather than signaling the genre. “The Tale of Temporary Summers is a work on which more than one generation of Russian chroniclers worked, it is a monument to collective creativity. The first stage of work dates back to the 30-40s. 11th century under Yaroslav the Wise. This stage was associated with the prince’s educational activities. The center of the chronicle was Sophia of Kiev, where the prince tried to establish a Russian, not a Greek, as metropolitan. The aggravation of the religious struggle for independence from Byzantium was also reflected in the chronicle, the core of which was “The Legend of the Spread of Christianity in Rus'.” In form, this is not yet a chronicle, but rather a patericon. The second stage occurred in the 70s. and is connected with another center of Russian enlightenment, the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. Compilation of the first Pechersk chronicle of the 70s. took place with the participation of Nikon. At this stage in the history of chronicling, there appears a tendency towards a strict chronology of events, without which history would be devoid of movement. Dates could be taken from Easter tables, and historical information from the folklore of the Black Sea region. In Nikon's vault, church history gradually began to develop into secular history. The compilation of the second Pechersk chronicle dates back to the 90s. 11th century and is attributed to Abbot John. The monastery at that time was against Svyatopolk. The journalistic focus of the code was to glorify the former power of Rus' and denounce the princes waging fratricidal wars. At the end of the 90s. There was a reconciliation between the prince and the monastery and in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra a new chronicle was created in his interests - “The Tale of Bygone Years”, the first edition of which belongs to Nestor. From an opposition chronicle it turns into an official one and begins to have an all-Russian character.

New editions of The Tale of Bygone Years are being created outside the Pechersky Monastery. The second edition was compiled in 1116. priest Sylvester, whom Vladimir Monomakh instructed to “straighten out” Nestor’s work, which glorified his political opponent. In 1118 the chronicle is again edited in the interests of Prince Mstislav.

“The Tale of Bygone Years” contains 2 main ideas: the idea of ​​​​the independence of Rus' and its equality with other countries (in the description of military operations) and the idea of ​​​​the unity of Rus', the Russian princely family, the need for a union of princes and condemnation of strife (“The Legend of the Calling of the Varangians”). The work highlights several main themes: the theme of the unification of cities, the theme of the military history of Rus', the theme of the peaceful activities of princes, the theme of the history of the adoption of Christianity, the theme of urban uprisings. In terms of composition, this is a very interesting work. It breaks down into 2 parts: up to 850, a conventional chronology, and then a weather one. There were also articles where it was a year, but there was no entry. This meant that nothing significant happened that year, and the chronicler did not consider it necessary to record it. Under one year there could be several large narratives. The chronicle includes symbols: visions, miracles, signs, as well as messages and teachings. The first, dated 852, article was associated with the beginning of the Russian land. Under 862 there was a legend about the calling of the Varangians, the establishment of a single ancestor of the Russian princes Rurik. The next turning point in the chronicle is associated with the baptism of Rus' in 988. The final articles talk about the reign of Svyatopolk Izyaslavich. Also, the compositional originality of “The Tale of Bygone Years” is manifested in the combination of many genres in this work. Partly because of this, messages of different content were sometimes placed under the same year. The chronicle was a collection of primary genre formations. Here we find both a weather record - the simplest and oldest form of narration, and a chronicle story, chronicle legends. The closeness of the chronicle to hagiographic literature is revealed in the stories about two Varangian martyrs, about the founding of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery and its ascetics, about the transfer of the relics of Boris and Gleb, about the repose of Theodosius of the Pechersk. The genre of funeral laudatory words was associated in the chronicles with obituary articles, which often contained verbal portraits of deceased historical figures, for example, a description of the Tmutarakan prince Rostislav, who was poisoned during a feast by a Byzantine warrior. Landscape sketches are symbolic. Unusual natural phenomena are interpreted by the chronicler as “signs” - warnings from above about impending death or glory.

In the depths of the “Tale of Bygone Years” a military story begins to take shape. Elements of this genre are already present in the story about Yaroslav’s revenge on Svyatopolk the Accursed. The chronicler describes the gathering of troops and the march, preparations for battle, the “evil slaughter” and the flight of Svyatopolk. Also, the features of a military story can be traced in “The Tale of Oleg’s Capture of Tsaryrad”, in the story “About the Battle of Yaroslav with Mstislav”.

8. The depiction of historical figures and the originality of the style of “The Tale of Bygone Years.”

The central heroes of the chronicle are the princes. Chroniclers of the 11th-12th centuries. they were depicted from the point of view of the established princely ideal: a good warrior, the head of his people, generous, merciful. The prince is also a good Christian, a fair judge, merciful to those in need, a person incapable of committing any crimes. But in The Tale of Bygone Years there are few ideal princes. First of all, these are Boris and Gleb. All other princes are presented more or less diversified. In the chronicle, the squad supports the prince. The people are most often depicted as a passive force. A hero emerges from the people and saves the people and the state: Nikita Kozhemyaka; a youth who decides to make his way through the enemy camp. Most of them do not have a name (they are called by age), nothing is known about their past and future, each has an exaggerated quality, reflecting a connection with the people - strength or wisdom. The hero appears in a certain place at a critical moment. The depiction of the heroes of the early chronicles is greatly influenced by folklore. The chronicle gives laconic but vivid characteristics to the first Russian princes (Oleg, Olga, Igor, Svyatoslav, Vladimir), highlighting the dominant feature in the image of the hero, and of an individual order. The image of Olga poetizes the wisdom of a statesman, which is expressed in the search for a single faith and in revenge on the Drevlyans. The characterization of Svyatoslav is epically laconic. He is a straightforward and courageous man, easy to communicate with soldiers; he preferred victory in open battle to military cunning. He always warned his enemies that he was preparing a campaign against them. Characteristics of Svyatoslav are given through his actions and accomplished feats. In later fragments of the chronicle, the image of the good Christian prince comes to the fore. The characteristics of these princes are official, devoid of individual signs. The murderous prince could turn into a righteous man; Yaroslav the Wise turns from a rebellious son into an instrument of divine punishment for Svyatopolk the Accursed. In the chronicle there is a mixture of the style of monumental historicism, epic stylistics and church stylistics. In stories written in the style of monumental historicism, everything is known in advance, the fate of the hero is predetermined. And in epic parts the effect of surprise is often used. Also a feature of the style is the mixture of different genres in one chronicle, often condensing different events into one year (especially if this event lasted several years).

9. The originality of the content and form of the Novgorod chronicle of the era of feudal fragmentation. "The Tale of the Battle of the Lipitsa River."

The basis of the Novgorod 1st Chronicle was made up of records that were kept at the bishop's court. The chronicle itself retains the names of some authors, for example, Herman Vojata and his successor, sexton Timofey. Chroniclers often expressed their point of view on the events described. The Novgorodians themselves chose their princes and treated them very freely, so the prince was not the main person in the Novgorod Chronicle. The main content of the chronicle consisted of records about the life of the city and the entire Novgorod land. Pictures of disasters and natural phenomena appear repeatedly. Much attention is paid to the various activities of the townspeople, especially the construction and painting of churches. The number of people mentioned in the chronicle is very large: townspeople, mayors, etc. Novgorod chroniclers were prone to brevity, most of the records were weather records. All Novgorodians were patriots of their city, so in descriptions of battles they tended to exaggerate the number of enemies and understate the number of Novgorodians. The event type is very rare and stands on the border with the informative one. Legendary subjects were used quite often. A striking distinctive feature of the Novgorod Chronicle is the author’s direct expression of his opinion about people. A genre that can be confidently identified in the chronicle is the military story. The types of military stories in the Novgorod chronicle are the same as in other principalities (informative and eventful), but the boundaries between them are much more fluid. In military stories, little attention is paid to heroes, although there are much more names of characters mentioned in them than in other chronicles, since the authors name the names of princes, governors, and individual townspeople. The descriptions of the battles are very brief (most of the chronicles were created by clergy who were far from military events). The chroniclers cared about the glory of their city and were extremely reluctant to write about the defeats of the Novgorodians. They often resorted to methods of keeping silent about the results of the battle, instead of which the deaths of individual Novgorodians were reported, and it was mentioned that more enemies died. One of the few event stories in the Novgorod Chronicle is the story of the battle on the Lipitsa River in 1216. The first part tells in detail about the events preceding the battle. The beginning of Mstislav's campaign with the Novgorodians against Yaroslav is dated. Then the movement with battles near small towns, which were claimed by the allies or Yaroslav himself, is described; there are no descriptions of the battles. The exact location of the troops who came to the battle is indicated. The second part tells about the battle. Its description is very brief. The third part talks about the consequences: the flight of Yaroslav to Pereyaslavl; the arrest of captured Novgorodians, causing many to die; the expulsion of Yuri from Vladimir and the reign of Constantine there; the return of the Novgorodians from Pereyaslavl and the arrival of Yaroslav in Novgorod. The heroes of the work are characterized very poorly, as in most Novgorod stories. The author emphasizes the correctness of Mstislav and his desire to avoid bloodshed. Simple Novgorod warriors also appear. They are the ones who determine how they will fight and win. The narrator openly and consistently expresses his position. He rejoices at Mstislav’s victory and is surprised that “they are like father against father, brother against brother...” (during the gathering of princely coalitions). The author's position, as in many Novgorod stories, is manifested in exaggerating the forces and losses of the enemies and belittling the forces and losses of the Novgorodians. The speech of the characters is colloquial and laconic. In different parts of the work, military formulas are used: “many were beaten, and some were confiscated, and some were escaped,” less numerous than in informative stories.

10. Review of translated literatureXI- XIIIcenturies Characteristics of the Apocrypha.

Christianity came to Rus' from Byzantium through the mediation of Yugoslav countries, primarily Bulgaria. Therefore, the first books that Russians began to read were translations from Greek, often made by Bulgarian scribes. At first, the main topic was the topic of world history. Byzantine chronicles were very common in Rus', among which were the “Chronicle” of George Amartol and the “Chronicle” of John Malala. A feature of the narrative was the combination of dynastic series with entertaining stories about the fate of historical figures and events of the past. The History of the Jewish War by Josephus is considered a masterpiece of translation art. This work tells about the destruction of Jerusalem in the first person, because. Joseph was an eyewitness to these events. “History” is imbued with a sense of experience, pictures of war are created on an apocalyptic scale. The novel about Alexander the Great was especially popular in Rus'. Its basis is not historical authenticity, but the thrill of the story about the adventures of the hero, about wonderful lands where fantastic creatures live. The personality of the commander itself also acquired a legendary character. The Macedonian was credited with semi-divine origin, campaigns in Sicily, and the conquest of Rome. His death is also shrouded in mystery. In addition to historical chronicles, hagiographic literature, oratorical prose, apocrypha, and natural science literature penetrated into the country. Of the translated hagiographic literature, the most famous are the translations of the lives of Alexy, the man of God; Andrey Yurodivy; St. George the Victorious and others. They had no less circulation in Rus' than the lives of Orthodox saints. Nicholas the Wonderworker enjoyed great veneration in Rus'. Many religious traditions and legends were associated with his name; he was a favorite hero of folk spiritual poetry. There were about 40 works about him. Known in Rus' since the 11th century. “The Life of Alexy, the Man of God” gained particular popularity in the 17th century, during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich (the saint was his patron). This life had a great influence on many hagiographic monuments of Rus'. The Indian Patericon (translations of India) and the Sinai Patericon (translations of the Sinai area) were also very famous in Rus'. The Patericon did not contain complete biographies of the saints, but short stories about the most striking episodes of their ascetic activity. Of oratorical prose, the most famous collection was the Byzantine “Bee”. It consisted of short stories, anecdotes, sayings, and quotes that glorified virtues or condemned vices. The translated “Physiologist” was a kind of “natural science encyclopedia” of the Middle Ages. It contained information about the flora and fauna, sometimes of an exotic and often fantastic nature (for example, crocodiles cry when devouring their prey, lions sleep with their eyes open, and the phoenix bird is able to be reborn from the ashes). The “physiologist” symbolically interpreted the habits and properties of animals, correlating them with the state of the human soul. The general idea of ​​the structure of the universe was formed by “Christian Topography”, and the commentary on the story about the creation of the world in 6 days contained “Six Days”. Interest in apocryphal literature and non-canonical books was also persistent in Rus'. They are divided into books that do not contradict the dogmas of Christianity and are calmly accepted by the church, and those that contradict the canonical ones and are prohibited by the church. There are about 30 apocrypha related to the Old Testament, and the same number related to the Gospel. The Apocrypha were oral, they are usually divided into 3 groups: Old Testament (the legend “How God Created Adam” - the authors recognized that the devil also took part in the creation of man); New Testament (apocrypha about the life of Christ and his disciples) and eschatological (telling about a journey to the afterlife, for example, “The Virgin Mary’s Walk through Torment” - the Mother of God wants to see how sinners live in hell).

11. Characteristics of the walking genre. Features of “The Walking of Abbot Daniel” as the first monument of the pilgrimage variety of the genre. The work of N.I. Prokofiev “Walking: travel and literary genre.”

Walking is a genre that tells about a real-life journey. There are pilgrimage, merchant, embassy and exploration walks. Signs of the genre of circulation: events that are actually historical; by composition - a chain of travel sketches connected by chronological or topographical criteria; the narrator is not necessarily educated, but has the obligatory personal qualities - courage, energy, diplomacy, religious tolerance, he does not seek to embellish or idealize events; the language is simple, colloquial Old Russian, the use of foreign words for the nominative function, comparisons are most often used. In the travel literature of Ancient Rus', Prokofiev distinguishes 5 groups of “travellings”: documentary and artistic works of an essay type, compiled on the basis of personal impressions; “travelers” - short practical route indicators; “skasks” are records of oral stories of Russian people who visited foreign countries or foreigners who came to Rus'; article lists and reports of Russian ambassadors on trips abroad with a diplomatic mission; legendary or fictitious travel stories compiled for journalistic purposes. The first example of this genre is “The Pilgrimage of Hegumen Daniel to Palestine.” The work begins with a rather extensive introduction. Daniel uses self-deprecation and speaks of the purpose of writing: so that people who could not travel would receive spiritual pleasure. But the second side of his goal is work, the creation of a “buy-in” for the talent given to him. In terms of composition, it is a chain of travel sketches connected according to a topographical principle. “Walking” is characterized by a fusion of the legendary, the source of which could be the Bible, apocrypha, and folk legends, with the real, topographically reliable. Features of “The Walking of Abbot Daniel”: descriptions of holy places; many real landscape sketches, he strives for extreme concreteness of what is depicted; retelling or mention of hagiographic, biblical or apocryphal legends; a narrative about the journey itself and discussions about the narrator. The versatility of the abbot’s interests is also striking: in addition to holy places, he is interested in practical issues - the irrigation system of Jericho, the extraction of incense on the island of Cyprus, the special layout of Jerusalem, built in the shape of a 4-pointed cross. The style of the work is characterized by laconicism and parsimonious language. Daniel avoids abstract words, preferring simple vocabulary of a concrete everyday nature. Epithets are usually descriptive or evaluative. The simple language is explained by the fact that the abbot from the very beginning set himself the intention of writing simply and understandably for ordinary people. The Walk of Abbot Daniel" is valuable as a detailed guide for Russian pilgrims and a source of archaeological information about Jerusalem. In his work, the first in its genre, the basic canons of writing walks were formed, which later became distinctive features for this genre.

12. Kyiv literature of the era of feudal fragmentation. Kyiv Chronicle. South Russian story about Igor's campaign against the Polovtsians.

13. History of origin, genre composition, style features of the “Kievo-Pechersk Patericon”».

The genre of “patericon,” a collection of works about the saints of a particular locality, had a wide geographical scope and a long history before it began to develop in Russian literature. Translated patericons were known in Rus' back in the 11th-12th centuries. In Russian literature, the first work of this genre was the patericon of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery, founded in the mid-11th century. The Patericon was created in the 12th and early 13th centuries. Its new editions were created in the 14th, 15th, and 17th centuries. This patericon was a genre-ensemble, the structure of which was complex and flexible: the composition of the patericon and the principle of arrangement of texts in it changed from edition to edition. Very early on, it included chronicle articles related to the history of the most famous monastery, as well as works from the Fedosievo cycle (the works of Theodosius of Pechersk, “Life” and “Praise” of the saint). The basis of this patericon is the correspondence between Bishop Simon of Vladimir and the monk of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery Polycarp. This correspondence raised questions of the moral behavior of the monks and personally of Polycarp himself, who desired strength and power. And, dreaming of becoming an abbess, he turned to Simon for help. The composition of the patericon within the genre is very diverse: it contains epistles, patericon lives, teachings, miracles, visions, signs, and oral monastic legends. All patericon lives have an action-packed character. The main characters, along with monks, are also demons. Direct speech is used very often. Only the didactic parts contain Slavic vocabulary and quotes. In the Patericon Life there is no complete narrative about the life of the saint from birth to posthumous miracles; the author limits himself to one or several episodes, but the most striking and significant ones. The remaining news about the saint is given in a compressed form. These lives are very laconic, artless, they contain many cliched comparisons, little allegories and rhetoric. The stories of the patericon arose on a folklore basis, preserving the epic nature of the images, the fairy-tale style of narration and many dialogues. The style of the patericon is short and artless, teaching in the form of an entertaining and action-packed story. Features of the patericon: presentation of the lives of the heroes, information content, lack of idealization of the heroes. These features are inherent in the epic style of the work.

14. Time of creation, Main idea, plot and composition of “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign”. Work by V.F. Rzhiga “Composition “Tales of Igor’s Campaign”.

The work was discovered in 1788-1792. Musin-Pushkin. Two directions arose in the study of the “Word”: the text as an ancient monument and the skeptical direction (they believed that the “Word” was a fake of the late 18th century). One of the adherents of the theory of the authenticity of the “Word” was A.S. Pushkin, he was also studied by Buslaev (author of an anthology for gymnasiums), Potebnya (unified the spelling of all the words of the work, established the poetic characteristics of the “Word”), Barsov (wrote a work on the “Word” , where he summarized everything that had been said about him for 100 years, gave his interpretation of the “dark places”, and created part of the reference dictionary “Words”). The skeptical school reached its peak in the 20-30s. 19th century The group of researchers was headed by Kochenovsky. Also adjoining him were Belikov, Katkov, Aksakov and others. They proceeded from a low knowledge of ancient Russian culture. It was believed that the Lay used words from different Slavic languages. Skeptics ignored the fact that traces of the work were found in other ancient Russian monuments. Until 1852, skeptical views remained unchanged. But this year a list of “Zadonshchina” was found, where the traditions of the “Word” stood out very clearly. Skeptics are fading into the shadows, and the last surge of skeptical theory was in the 60s. 20th century Zimin brings forward new arguments: he published a number of articles and summarized his observations in a book, which was not published in large numbers. The main points of his theory: “The Word” was written in the beginning. 90s 18th century; associated with the Russian-Turkish war; author - Bykovsky. Baza-Bykovsky was a poet, Musin-Pushkin also made his own amendments. He argued that the Lay had many folklore sources (“Zadonshchina”) and contained many Turkisms. The time of creation of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” was the last 15 years of the 12th century. a number of researchers call the more probable time 1185-1187. (between the time of the campaign and the death of Vladimir Pereyaslavsky and Yaroslav Galitsky, mentioned in the work). The historical basis for the creation of this work was the unsuccessful campaign in the Polovtsian steppe in 1185 of the Russian princes under the leadership of the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich. It was written after this tragic event. The work has a very strong idea about the need for the unity of Rus' and the end of princely civil strife. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” in the Kyiv Chronicle describes the same events that are described in the “Tale”. It is clearly divided into 3 parts: preparation of the battle - battle - consequences of the campaign. There are no lyrical fragments in this story, while the Lay is full of them (for example, Yaroslavna’s cry). There are similarities in the central parts: they seem to be divided into 2 fragments - 2 battles. But there is one more part in the “Word” - it includes the preparation of troops and the march. In the “Tale”, the first part is detailed and detailed - there is a description of the troops, the exact date of the start of the campaign, a description of the sign, which is interpreted not by the author, but by the prince and the squad. In “The Word” this part is included in the 2nd, and the introduction is lyrical in nature. The author addresses the listeners, talks about the purpose of his work (which is not in the “Tale”). The third part, telling about the consequences of Igor’s campaign, in the “Tale” begins with a fragment of Svyatoslav’s gathering of troops to repel the Polovtsy, and then tells about the Polovtsian campaign against Rus' (an independent military story introduced into the narrative of Igor’s campaign). In “The Lay,” this part begins with a lyrical fragment of Yaroslavna’s lament, and then it tells about Igor’s escape from captivity with many lyrical fragments, a description of the forces of nature that help Igor. Both works end with the same event—Igor’s escape from captivity and his return home, described in detail. The main difference between these works is the lyrical fragments (in the “Word” they are in abundance, but in the “Tale” they are absent). There are also differences in composition.

The plot and compositional design of “The Lay” is unique; it does not obey the canon of any of the known genres of ancient Russian literature. Also, the construction of the monument is distinguished by artistic perfection and expediency. The composition text is usually divided into 3 parts: introduction, main part and conclusion. The introduction is lyrical in nature. The author addresses the audience, talks about the purpose of writing the Lay, and recalls Boyan, who glorified the deeds of the princes. The author points to 2 time layers that determine the chronological framework of the story: “from old Vladimir to present Igor,” we are most likely talking about Vladimir Monomakh, because the idea of ​​the word was relevant precisely during his reign. There is already a desire for journalisticism, for the relevance of the work. The central part of the work is divided into 3 subparts: the plot - Igor’s preparation for the battle, a solar eclipse, 2 battles with the Polovtsians; a combination of lyrical and lyrical-journalistic fragments - Svyatoslav’s dream, the interpretation of this dream, Svyatoslav’s “Golden Word”, at the end, in part, the idea that the Russian princes need unity to fight not only the Polovtsians, but also all external enemies. Here a historical digression appears about Vseslav, an older contemporary of Monomakh, who participated in numerous strife, but never achieved success. The third subpart connects the lyrical fragment - Yaroslavna's lament - with the end of the plot - the story of Igor's escape from captivity, where there are many landscape sketches describing the natural forces helping Igor. Conclusion - praise to Igor. With the help of lyrical fragments and historical digressions, the author managed to show the harmful influence of the uncoordinated actions of the princes on the fate of Rus'. The main idea of ​​“The Lay” is expressed in the central part, when the action takes place in Kyiv. Kyiv is thought of as the unifying principle of the Russian princes. Landscapes occupy the most important place in the visual system of the Lay. They can be divided into 3 groups: dynamic, symbolic, static. Dynamic (promoting or opposing heroes) is used in subparts 1 and 3; static (denoting the time of day or recording some state of nature) appear there, there are very few of them; symbolic ones are associated only with Igor’s campaign and are dominated by images of luminaries. The composition “Words” combines both lyrical and epic principles, which determines its originality.

15. Features of the depiction of historical figures in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”

There is no one main character in The Lay. Each part has its own main character. This is Igor, Svyatoslav, Yaroslavna. In addition to the main characters, there are also secondary ones, for example, images of princes of the past in historical digressions. Each historical figure in The Lay is depicted in its own way. Igor is depicted in the same way as the prince-heroes of military stories were often depicted. He is a warrior and a courageous and courageous person. His desire for fame is very strong and sometimes clouds his mind. His unreasonableness forces the author to almost not show him in battle, because no heroism can justify a prince who does not think about the fate of his native land. The author paints the image of Igor using metaphors, comparisons, and characteristics of other characters in the work. For the author, Igor is an example of an erroneous princely policy, and praise is given to him only because he came to Svyatoslav, i.e. realized the need for unity. The author portrays Svyatoslav as an ideal hero. He is opposed to Igor and Vsevolod. His image is that of a powerful prince-military leader who defeated the Polovtsians thanks to unity. He is also characterized by his speech: wise, judicious statements, even prophetic. It is he who pronounces the famous “golden word” and sees a prophetic dream about the death of Igor’s army. The image of Yaroslavna was created on the basis of a lyrical fragment of lamentation. Her image is a generalization; this is precisely why such a genre was chosen to characterize her - purely folk. Yaroslavna is depicted as a kind of symbol of peaceful Russian people, in contrast to the historically described princes. The power of her love, which helps Igor escape from captivity, is the power of all Russian women. In addition to the main characters, the author portrayed real-life historical figures who are minor characters in The Lay. For example, Vsevolod Svyatoslavich, Igor’s brother. He is younger than Igor, but he also... has the brotherly trait of warrior heroism. This is the only person shown by the author in battle, and his actions are similar to those of a hero. He is shown in battle as an epic hero, his description is full of hyperbole, his selflessness with which he chops down the enemy is shown. He embodies the best traits of a warrior. The remaining minor characters are shown in a very general way. But in addition to real-life persons participating in the battle, the Lay contains images of princes of the past, who are spoken of at moments of historical retreats. Oleg Svyatoslavich is condemned by the author: “TiboOleg we throw sedition and sow arrows on the ground.” There are 2 metaphors here: the sword-weapon of the defender of Rus', and arrows that dotted the ground instead of grains. Oleg is the sower of strife between the princes. Prince Vseslav of Polotsk appears as a man endowed with supernatural abilities, “prophetic”. Episodes of his life are conveyed using metaphors, the meaning of which can be understood from the chronicle. The author has an ambiguous attitude towards him: on the one hand, he participates in civil strife, and the author condemns him, but on the other hand, Vseslav himself more than once becomes a victim of these civil strife. The third image of the prince of the past is the image of Rostislav Vsevolodovich. There are almost no characteristics of him; he is mentioned only in connection with his tragic death. He dies from the Polovtsians at a very young age, and the author shows in his image the images of many young men who suffered the same fate after the battle with their enemies. In the images of the princes of the past, the author reminded readers of the disastrous consequences of internecine wars and fragmentation of Rus'.

16. The problem of the rhythmic organization of the text “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” The originality of the poetic language of the work.

The problem of the rhythmic organization of the “Word” is one of the most difficult problems in literary criticism. It is not known whether this is prose or poetry, because... Not all rhythmic patterns have been identified. Stelletsky’s concept is considered the most convincing. He tried to identify the patterns of rhythmic units, the main feature of which he considered completeness of intonation with a decrease in tone towards the end of the unit. He identified 2 groups of these units: lines of archaic rhythmic-intonation verse and lines of rhythmically organized prose. To create rhythm, various syntactic means are used: anaphors, epiphores, syntactic parallelism, homogeneous members. Following his theory, the lines written in verse are limited to beginnings and refrains: “O Russian land! Already for the shelomyanem \”, “. For the Russian land, for the wounds of Igor, Bugo Svyatslavich\”, etc. But Stelletsky's theory is not ideal. For example, he suggested that for ancient Russian literature word stress did not matter, although for poetry it is an important factor. It is impossible to check the influence of stress on the rhythmic structure of the “Word”, because there is no accentological dictionary for that time. And therefore, although Stelletsky’s work has provided many patterns, the problem of the rhythm of the work still remains relevant.

The poetic language of the “Word” is created through a variety of syntactic means, tropes, and lyrical means (for example, Yaroslavna’s cry).

17. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and oral folk art.

The view of researchers who believed that “The Lay” is a folklore work and tried to find analogies for it in the field of genres of folk art can be considered almost obsolete. But despite this, quite a lot of folklore traditions can be traced in the work. As Likhachev said, the “Word” of the folklore genres is closest to laments and words. There are CNT traditions in visual and expressive means: constant epithets, metaphorical images familiar to folk art (for example, battle-feast and battle-sowing, harvest), tautological combinations (“neither think, nor think”), personifications (“Nichit grass with pity, and the tree bowed down to the ground." Folklore traditions are also used in the images of heroes and some descriptions. For example, Vsevolod Svyatoslavich, who looks like an epic hero during a battle, his strength and power are exaggerated. Svyatoslav also combines heroic qualities: wisdom and strength. Symbolic landscape descriptions can also be considered a continuation of the CNT traditions. Fantastic events (nature's help to the prince during his escape from captivity), symbolic phenomena (solar eclipse, bloody dawn, screams and barking of animals before battle) are also remnants of folklore ideas. Summarizing what has been said, it can be argued that the connection with CNT is manifested at the genre level (crying, lamentation, proverbs, epics), as well as through artistic means (psychological parallelism, repetitions, epithets).

Finding the author of the “Tale” is one of the main tasks of studying this monument. Since its main idea is the need to unite the forces of all princes to protect Rus', and its features, according to various researchers, make it similar to the Novgorod, Galician-Volyn, Kyiv and other traditions, the author of this work may come from a variety of lands. For example, from Kyiv (according to Rybakov’s hypothesis) or the Pskov principality (according to Gogeshvili’s hypothesis). Zimin, a representative of the skeptical trend in the study of the “Word,” believed that it was created by the archimandrite of the Spaso-Yaroslavl Monastery, Joel Bykovsky, and Musin-Pushkin slightly modified it. Despite the abundance of hypotheses, the question of the authorship of the “Lay” can be considered deadlocked, because none of the hypotheses naming the author of the monument can be considered true, because there are no sufficient grounds for this, and the appearance of new historical figures who are credited with authorship only confuses readers without adding anything important to the study of the work itself.

19. Genre originality of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” History of translations of the “Word”, their types and features.

The solution to the problem of the genre of the work still remains ambiguous. The opinion about the folklore genre “Words” can be considered almost obsolete. This work is considered as a work of book tradition, having some folklore features. I.P. Eremin believed that it belongs to the genre of solemn political eloquence. This version has been convincingly proven, although not ideal. Likhachev proposed a more compromise option. He argued that the “Word” is closest among written genres to the genre of solemn oratorical eloquence, and among folklore genres it is closest to laments and words. The most successful is considered the point of view of Prokofiev, who said that “The Lay” is a lyrical-epic song. This decision simultaneously takes into account the generic complexity of the work, its connection with the folk poetic tradition, and the originality of the rhythmic organization. At the same time, it makes it possible to compare the “Lay” with Western European works of medieval epic, for example, “The Song of Roland.” Translations of the “Lay” exist in all languages ​​of the world. There are about 100 translations in Russian: interlinear (for educational purposes, literal translation); poetic (the text is accurately conveyed, not written in the syllabic-tonic system); poetic arrangement (individual deviations from the text are allowed, dividing it into parts, written in syllabic tonic). The names of several translators of the Lay have been preserved, whose translations we still use today. Zhukovsky, translating the Lay, sought to preserve the ancient text (its vocabulary and rhythm) as much as possible. He translated it in rhythmic prose. All other translations are from the 19th and 20th centuries. can be classified as a type of arrangement. The best of them is Maikov's translation. Maikov worked on it for 4 years. His translation contains many interpretations of the “dark places” given by himself. The translation is written in 5-foot trochee. Because of this, the text acquired a monotony that is not present in the original. Zabolotsky's translation is also very common. He decided to divide the text into parts and translated the “dark places”. His translation is easy to read, but does not convey the vocabulary of the “Word”. The translation size is 5-foot trochee with separate tonic inserts. In the 20th century There were 2 translations: Andrei Chernov and Shklyaris. They sought to convey the text of the Lay more accurately. Chernov took into account the special rhyme of the original, on the basis of which he made his translation.

20. History of the study of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” Translations of works, their types and features.

21. Galicia-Volyn Chronicle as a monument to the era of feudal fragmentation. The originality of the “Chronicle of Daniil of Galicia” as a princely chronicler.

This chronicle is heterogeneous in nature. It consists of two parts: the Galician Chronicle (before 1262) and the Volyn Chronicle (tells about the history of the Volyn Principality in the last period). The 2nd part is unoriginal in a literary sense. In this sense, the 1st part is more interesting. Initially, the chronicle was created as a description of the prince's life. But the late setting of dates led to a discrepancy in years of up to 5 years (compared to other chronicles). Prince Daniil Galitsky is presented in the chronicle in many ways. He is shown not only as an experienced commander and warrior, but also as a city planner. The portrait descriptions of the prince and the army are unique. The prince's clothes and the harness of his horse are described in detail.

The content of the chronicle is largely related to the position of the principality on the outskirts of Rus', in close proximity to the Polovtsian steppe and Western European countries. The Galician princes had to enter into difficult relationships with other Russian princes and with their western neighbors. As in most chronicles of the era of feudal fragmentation, stories about internecine wars, battles with the Cumans and their western neighbors occupy a significant place. The narrative is secular in nature, although the author’s erudition not only in secular, but also in church literature is beyond doubt. But the task that stood in the foreground—to give a heroic biography of a contemporary prince—forced us to abandon the didactic-moralistic approach. Because This chronicle is a princely chronicler, much attention is paid to Daniel. The chronicle contains many descriptions of battles, and therefore many military stories. The battles (mainly those in which Daniel participated) are described in detail. These descriptions are distinguished by the detail and vividness of the depiction of events, attention to the heroes, especially Daniel, and a penchant for picturesque depictions of battles. For example, in the story about the battle of Yaroslav, each of the characters is endowed with individual traits, the images of Daniel and Vasilko as courageous warriors and brave, successful commanders are especially vividly drawn. The author speaks of divine help to them in battle: “I will show God my help over them, as victory does not come from the help of man, but from God.” In the story of the ruin of Kyiv by Batu, the commander of the battle was Dimitar, appointed by Daniil Galitsky. The author does not pay much attention to the characters in the story, focusing on a picturesque depiction of events, perhaps because the main character did not participate in the events. The image of Dimitar is drawn in only a few lines: it is said about his injury and at the end it is said about Dmitry’s courage.

22. Vladimir-Suzdal literature from the era of feudal fragmentation. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign against the Polovtsians” according to the Laurentian Chronicle.

This was a principality in the 12th century. became one of the most powerful Russian principalities. This process of strengthening the principality was preserved in the annals of Radzivilov and Laurentian. The Vladimir chronicles of this time are closer to the all-Russian type. For them, the division of the descendants of Vladimir Monomakh, who reigned in this principality, is important. The Vladimir and Kyiv stories about Andrei Bogolyubsky are very similar. Most likely, its source was the Kiev Chronicle.

The genre composition of the Laurentian Chronicle is reminiscent of The Tale of Bygone Years. But a greater place is occupied by the military story, primarily about internecine wars, the struggle with the Polovtsians, the Volga Bulgars and the northern peoples. Consequently, the military story receives its final form in this chronicle. The informative type of stories predominates; chroniclers pay great attention to the assessment of events. Quotes and retrospective historical analogies are very common. For example, a story about Igor Svyatoslavich’s campaign against the Polovtsians. The work consists of 3 parts. The first part talks about the reasons and preparation for the trip. The second part is a description of both battles with the Cumans using several military formulas. The third part is complex in structure, it talks about the consequences of the campaign. This part is divided into 3 more sub-parts: Svyatoslav’s campaign against the Polovtsy, the story of the siege of Pereyaslavl, the story of Igor’s escape from captivity. The story ends with a didactic digression, where the author speaks of the prince’s defeat as God’s punishment. This story differs from the story in the Kyiv Chronicle. None of the princes is shown as an independent character - they are a single whole, “Olgovyvnutsi” or “Olgovichi”. The motives that drive them are not the defense of their native land, but the thirst for glory. The reason for defeat is boasting, excessive self-confidence. But Svyatoslav of Kiev and Vladimir Pereyaslavsky are presented to the author as genuine defenders of Rus', trying to stop the Polovtsians. But, like all other characters, they are depicted by the author very sparingly. The image of the narrator in the story is typical of the Laurentian Chronicle: he condemns the Olgovichs. His assessment is manifested through the characteristics: “but not the building of God,” “man has no wisdom, no courage, no thoughts against the Lord.” Also in the story there are almost no figurative and expressive means, except for military formulas. In addition to stories of an informative type, there are weather records. They are laconic and lack precision in dating. There are also military stories of the event type. But there are significantly fewer of them. For example, stories about the campaigns of Andrei Bogolyubsky and Yuri Dolgoruky. In these stories, the author pays much more attention to the heroes than in the story about Igor’s campaign. In addition to military stories, other primary genres are found in the chronicle: signs, praise (usually accompanies the story of the death of a prince), and teaching. The “Prayer of Daniil the Zatochnik” can rightfully be called an example of Vladimir-Suzdal literature. He had 2 editions, which gave 2 works - “Prayer” and “Word”.

23. History of the text, content, problem of the genre “Prayers of Daniel the Imprisoner.” Article by B.A. Rybakov “Daniil Zatochnik and Russian chronicles of the 12th century.” No. 22.

“Prayer” is one of the most striking monuments of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality of the period of feudal fragmentation. There are 2 editions of it: “The Word” and “Prayer”. Daniel remains a conditional person for us, because... it is unknown whether he actually existed. Rybakov refers to the “Word” to 1197. The addressee is Prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich. Rybakov dates the “Prayer” to 1229 and believes that it was written by another author and addressed to Yaroslav Vsevolodovich. The scientist proposed calling the author of this edition “pseudo-Daniil.” In the “Word” Daniel humiliates himself before the prince; he talks about his poverty and defenselessness. Daniel asks to help him, because “we know a rich man everywhere and keep friends in a foreign country; but we hate to walk in ours, wretchedly.” His speeches contain many expressions similar in style to sayings and proverbs. He praises the prince, saying that his voice is sweet and his image is beautiful. The 2nd part of the “Word” is similar in style to a teaching, when Daniel tells the prince how to rule, mentioning King Solomon, Ezekiel and others. Then the story comes down to what a prince’s wife and retinue should be like. In conclusion, Daniel wishes the prince “Samson’s strength and David’s cunning.” The text of “Prayer” is not much different from the 1st edition. But a number of factual information and stylistic features appear in it. The ending contains an appeal to the prince, the author warns of some terrible events (which is not in the Lay). In “Prayer,” the style of the 1st edition is generally preserved, but folklore elements become more obvious. Both editions make extensive use of puns, rhetorical appeals, syntactic parallelism and rhetorical questions. There is a point of view that “The Word” and “Prayer” are written in the genre of epistle. But there are many deviations from the main purpose of the message. Therefore, there is such a point of view that this is a collection of aphorisms. In the USA there are 2 scientists who developed this theory: Romanchuk and Bernbaum. They argued that Daniel had many deviations from the letter, the work had a second addressee (brothers and prince), and Daniel himself was a monk (brothers-address to monks). “The Prayer of Daniel the Imprisoner”, against the background of other written monuments of this period known to us, is an innovative work that combines book wisdom and folk speech, biblical reminiscences and buffoon jokes, techniques of solemn eloquence and the folk tradition of puns. As a unique monument, “Prayer” is outside the traditional medieval genre system. Therefore, it is impossible to define the genre of this work unambiguously, which is the problem of the “Prayer” genre

“The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land” has come down to us in 2 copies, but both of them are late, and only in fragments. There are hypotheses that this is an introduction to a trilogy or an introduction to the life of Alexander Nevsky, because in both lists, after him came the life of Nevsky. But most researchers assume that this is an independent work. The text that has survived can be divided into 3 parts: 1-praise of the Russian land (“Oh, bright and beautifully decorated”); 2-memories of the power of Rus' (the time of Vladimir Monomakh, when “everything was subjugated to the God-Christian language”); 3-word about the illness that existed at that time. Despite the insignificance of the volume of the surviving text, a number of artistic features turn out to be comparable to “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” Perhaps the reason for the similarity is the patriotism of both authors, their concern for Rus', which is also manifested in their works. Both authors combined the past and present in their works, looked at Rus' panoramicly, hence the natural pictures depicting the power of their native land. And the choice of Monomakh’s timing is not accidental, because... under him, Rus' defeated the Polovtsians. Some paths and images are also similar: “One brother, one bright light” in “The Tale of the Regiment” and the “lightly bright” Russian land in the “Tale of Destruction”; in the “Tale of the Regiment” Yaroslav Galitsky props up the mountains to protect against the Ugrians with “iron regiments”, and in the “Tale of the Destruction” the Ugrians hide from Monomakh behind the “iron gates”. There are also stylistic coincidences, similar methods of determining the time period of the reign of the princes: in the “Tale of the Regiment” - “from old Volodimer to the present Igor”, and in the “Tale of Destruction” - “from the great Yaroslav to Volodimer”. The identity of the rhythmic structure of the works, based on the rhythm of homogeneous members, syntactic parallelisms, and verbal repetitions, was also established. All this allowed us to assume that both works belonged to the same poetic school.

25. The originality of “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu” as a military story.

This story belongs to the best examples of military stories. It originated in the 13th century. and came to us in lists of the 14th-17th centuries. Compositionally, it consists of 4 parts: 1-independent plot about Batu’s arrival to the borders of the principality and the embassy of the son of the Ryazan prince Fyodor Yuryevich to him; 2-constructed as an event-type military story. A story about the gathering of troops, the battle, the defeat of Ryazan; 3-epic tale about the Ryazan nobleman Evpatiy Kolovrat. It is attached to the previous part chronologically. The genre is a military story. The beginning of the action is the arrival of Kolovrat in the devastated Ryazan, the climax is the duel with Khostovrul, the denouement is the death of the hero; 4th arrival in Ryazan of the brother of the deceased Prince Ingvar Ingvarevich. It is connected to the previous part by chronology. This part of the plot does not represent a single whole. This combines Ingvar’s lament, praise for the family of the Ryazan princes, and a message about Ingvar’s actions (about the funeral of his brother, about his enthronement in Ryazan and its reconstruction). Each part of the story has its own main character, who has power, shown both in battle (2-3 parts), and in worldly actions or spiritually (1-4 parts). This is one of the features of a military story. There are also other features of a military story. For example, the story describes the prince’s preparation for battle and his prayer. In the description of the battle itself there are a lot of military formulas: “I attacked, and began to fight hard and courageously,” “the slaughter of evil was swift and terrible,” “Batu’s strength is great and heavy, united with a thousand, and two with you,” etc. . Describing the battle of Evpatiy Kolovrat with the Tatars, the author uses the military formula: “Riding through the Tatar regiments bravely and courageously.” The first non-chronicle story that has come down to us, “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu,” is built on the basis of a sequential combination of a number of independent fragments connected by one central event—Batu’s ruin of the Ryazan principality. Its compositional structure corresponds to the canons of a military story. But the story clearly increases attention to the characters, each of whom acquires individual traits. The number of visual and expressive means is expanding, along with military formulas, tropes appear that express the author’s attitude to events and heroes.

26. Genre originality of “The Life of Alexander Nevsky”.

During the era of the beginning of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the genre of hagiography developed. The heroes of the works now became not only saints, apostles, martyrs, but also people who defended Rus' and the faith from infidel enemies. An example of such a life is “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky.” This life appeared around 1283, its author is unknown, but it is known that it was written in the Nativity Monastery. It has come down to us in many lists. The life was created even before Nevsky’s canonization, and initially it was a secular biography. Perhaps because of this ambiguity, the hagiography combined two genres: hagiography and a military story. Compositionally, the work has a hagiographic macrostructure - it consists of 3 parts. 1-introduction (self-deprecation is used, the author says that he knew Nevsky as an adult, that he writes with a pure soul). 2-central part (a story about miracles during the life and after the death of Alexander). 3-conclusion (praise to the prince). Contrary to the tradition of life, there is no story about Nevsky’s childhood, because the author did not know the hero at this age. The features of the military story can be traced in the central part. When the Swedish king attacked Novgorod, the prince goes to the temple, prays, and then gathers a squad. This is the tradition of a military story. But a new genre-vision is inserted into this part. Pelugy, standing guard, sees Boris and Gleb in red clothes, who promised to help Nevsky. Next, Pelugius reports this to the prince, he listens attentively and soon goes into battle. The actions of 6 warriors fighting under the leadership of Alexander are described in detail, which is also typical for an event-type military story. There is a mention of a miracle, but after it happened: the angel of the Lord allegedly killed many of Alexander’s opponents where he could not reach them. In descriptions of battles, military formulas are used, for example, “quickly cut evil” (battle with the Germans). But at the same time, it speaks of Divine help to the prince, which is more suitable for life. The last episode tells about Alexander’s 2nd trip to the Horde and his death on the way back. The story ends with a story about the burial and a posthumous miracle: when Nevsky was lying in the coffin, the Metropolitan wanted to unclench his hand in order to enclose a spiritual letter. The prince, as if alive, unclenched his hand and took the letter from the hands of the metropolitan, neither accepting the horror nor retreating from him.” C6 structure “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky” is a work of a complex ensemble nature: inside the central part of the hagiography, independent military stories (event-based and informative types) are introduced as two episodes, which include genre formations characteristic of hagiographies - visions and miracles . The combination of life and military story is also in the style and language of the work: military formulas and living language are used by the author together, which is also a genre uniqueness of the work.

The originality of the genre “Tales of the murder of Mikhail of Chernigov and his boyar Fyodor in the Horde.”

The story was compiled in Rostov in the 60-70s. 13th century and was subsequently reworked several times. The story is based on real events of 1246. The author of the story combined the genre of historical story and hagiography-martyrium (a story about the last stage of the hero’s life). The story tells about the arrival of the Tatars in Southern Rus', about the trip of Russian people to the Horde and the performance of humiliating tasks in order to receive a label for reign. Having come to Rus', Batu began to convert everyone to his faith, saying that if the Russians bowed to their “idols”, bowed to him, then he would accept them. But Mikhail of Chernigov decided to go to the Horde to “die for Christ and for the orthodox faith.” His boyar Fyodor decides to go with him. They receive a blessing and go to the Horde. Arriving at the king, they say that Michael came to bow to him. Batu decided to subject them to humiliating tasks - to walk through the fire and bow to their idols. But Mikhail and Fyodor respond that this is unworthy of them, to which Batu became angry and said that he would kill them if they did not complete the task. But they pray to their God and accept the verdict. Hagiographic traditions in the story: an abundance of internal monologues of the characters, the author’s transmission of their thoughts and feelings. From the historical story in the work: real historical facts, logical-chronological three-part structure (preparation of the event - Batu’s attack, asking for Mikhail’s blessing for a trip to the Horde; narration of the event - trip to the Horde and refusal of Batu’s conditions; consequences of the event - the murder of Fyodor and Mikhail ), the author's personality is not very clearly shown, his assessment of events is through individual remarks, sometimes biblical quotes. The language of the work is traditional for a historical story and hagiography - colloquial Old Russian and Church Slavonic, a moderate number of tropes, but many biblical quotations.

27. Traditions and innovation in historical works about the Battle of Kulikovo (chronicle stories, “The Tale of Mamaev’s Massacre”, “Zadonshchina”). Prokofiev’s article “Moral and aesthetic quests in the literature of the era of the Battle of Kulikovo.”

A feature of the monuments from the era of the Battle of Kulikovo is an attentive and humane attitude towards people. The depiction of figures of Russian history is losing its former officiality and grandeur. In the foreground are not only military merits, but also family life. Prokofiev noted: “In such an image, the Battle of Kulikovo appears not only as a state or national event, but also as a universal phenomenon, expressed through personal and family relationships. This is seen as one of the artistic discoveries of the era.” The assessments of what was happening were marked by particular emotionality. Also literary styles of the 14th and 15th centuries. were largely the result of creative assimilation of their own pre-Mongol experience. The Battle of Kulikovo is reflected in literature. Almost all chronicles of this period depicted the Battle of Kulikovo in military stories. The trends in the development of the genre were expressed most clearly in two types of stories: lengthy and short. The short story was included in the “Rogozhsky Chronicler” and is an informative work with a traditional 3-part structure. Considerable space is devoted to the 3rd part - the consequences of the battle. But new details also appear: the list of dead at the end of the story; techniques of stringing together homogeneous tropes (“the godless, evil and Horde prince, the filthy Mamai”) and combining tautological phrases (“the dead are countless in number”). The lengthy story was preserved as part of the Novgorod 4th Chronicle. The composition of the factual information is the same as in the summary, but... This is an event-type story; the author has increased the number of compositional elements characterizing the heroes. The number of prayers of the main character increases: before the battle - 3, after the battle - a prayer of thanks. Another lyrical fragment, previously unused, also appears - the lament of Russian wives. A variety of figurative and expressive means are also used, especially vivid in relation to enemies: “dark raw foodist Mamai”, the apostate Oleg Ryazansky, “soul-destroying”, “bloodsucking peasant”. The descriptions of the Battle of Kulikovo itself in all the stories are distinguished by their emotionality, which is created by the author’s exclamations and the inclusion in the text of landscape elements that have not previously been used. All these features make the narrative more plot-motivated and emotionally intense. There are also 2 stories about the Battle of Kulikovo: “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamaev” and “Zadonshchina”. The composition of “Tales” structurally follows the tradition of a military story, but the narrative consists of a number of separate episodes-micro-plots, interconnected by plot-motivated or chronological inserts, which is an innovation. Also new is manifested in the author’s desire to show the personality of each character individually and show his role throughout the story. The characters are divided into main (Dmitry Ivanovich, Vladimir Andreevich and Mamai), secondary (Sergius of Radonezh, Dmitry Bobrok, Oleg Ryazansky, etc.) and episodic (Metropolitan Cyprian, Thomas Katsibey, etc.). Also a compositional feature is a lot of lyrical fragments (prayers, crying) and natural descriptions. A vision also appears in the text. A new descriptive element appears - an image of the Russian army, as the princes saw it from the hill. Along with the preservation of military formulas, many epithets and comparisons are used, and the role of metaphors is enhanced, emphasizing the experiences of the heroes. The author of “Zadonshchina” took “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” as a model. Boyan is also mentioned in the introduction, and at the end the time of the event is established (“And from the Kalat army to the Mamaev massacre is 160 years”). The subsequent text as a whole has a traditional 3-part structure. But within each part, the narrative is built on the basis of individual episodes-pictures, alternating with the author’s digressions. The story contains documentary elements, the use of digital data, and lists. There are minor deviations from the chronology, which is unconventional for a military story. Lyrical fragments are few in number, according to the canons of a military story. There are no detailed descriptions of the characters (except for Dmitry Ivanovich), and the enemies are described quite schematically. The folklore influence is visible in the use of negative comparisons (“You were not gray wolves, but you came to the foot of the Tatars, they want to go through the whole Russian land fighting”). “Zadonshchina” is a monument created at the intersection of traditions: folklore, military tales and “The Lay”. But the leading one should still be recognized as the tradition of the military story.

28. “Zadonshchina” and “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” Artistic connections and the problem of the genre of works.

The author of “Zadonshchina” took “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” as a model for the narrative. But, despite this, “Zadonshchina” is an independent work of art. The introduction is focused mainly on the Lay; Boyan is mentioned here, previously known only from the text of the Lay. But the part ends with establishing the time of the event: “And from the Kalat army to the Momayev massacre is 160 years.” The further text as a whole repeats the 3-part structure of the military story, but within each part the narration is built on the basis of individual episodes-pictures, alternating with the author’s digressions, which are focused on the “Word”. But in “Zadonshchina” there are documentary elements that are absent in “The Lay”. There are also similarities in the portrayal of the main characters. Prince Dmitry in “Zadonshchina” is an ideal hero. This is a continuation of the traditions of the Lay, the image of Svyatoslav as an ideal hero. In “Zadonshchina” there are many borrowings from “The Lay”. For example, there are many historical digressions in The Lay, and there are also in Zadonshchina (but much less). For example, predicting the outcome of a battle: “Shibla glory to the Iron Gates.” Or the words of Peresvet and Oslyabli, which could only have been spoken at the beginning of the battle (Peresvet died), are given after it. Another common place is crying. In “The Lay” there is the cry of Yaroslavna, and in “Zadonshchina” there is the cry of Russian wives. But their meanings are different. Yaroslavna's cry is symbolic, and the cry of the Russian wives breaks up the narrative of the battle to add additional emotional nuance. There are also commonplaces in the descriptions and speech of the characters. In the “Word” Igor says that “Lutsezh would have died without being destroyed.” And in “Zadonshchina” Peresvet almost word for word repeats these words: “We would rather be sweaty than be overwhelmed by the filthy Tatars.” “Zadonshchina” is a synthesis of a military story, folklore and “The Lay”. But the tradition of the military story prevails in it, which forces us to define its genre as a military story. “The Word” also combines several genres, which has led to the problem of defining its genre. It was close to both folklore and written genres (military stories, songs, solemn eloquence). But its genre is defined as a lyric-epic song.

29. Lives written by Epiphanius the Wise. The reasons for the emergence and basic techniques of the “weaving words” style.

30.Literary features and significance in the development of the genre of the military story “Nestor Iskander’s Tale of the Capture of Constantinople by the Turks.” Work by A.S. Orlov “On the peculiarities of the form of Russian military stories.”

This work belongs to the military stories of the era of the Battle of Kulikovo. It tells the story of the fall of the Christian Byzantine Empire in 1453 under the onslaught of the Turks and the transformation of the capital of the Orthodox world, Constantinople, into a Muslim city. The story became widespread in Rus' and was included in a number of chronicles of the 16th century, influencing the further development of military stories. The work consists of two parts. 1-prologue of events. A story about the founding of Constantinople, a sign that predicted the fate of this city (a fight between a snake and an eagle with the victory of the first, the symbol of Islam; but then people kill the snake), about the beauty and greatness of Constantinople. 2-main plot - a story about the siege and capture of the city by the Turks. This part corresponds to the canons of a military story. The description of the gathering of troops is very abstract. The central narrative lists military events. The plot is linear, traditional for a military story. But it is complicated by descriptions of many events. The author describes every day of the Turks' attack on the city, battles, and advice from the emperor and his entourage about further actions. And this is how every day of the siege is described. Here comes the motif of fate, predestination from the very beginning (a sign). The descriptions are very emotionally intense, which is enhanced by two signs - the departure of the patron angel of the city from the Church of Sophia (the central cathedral), and then the bloody rain. The last part of the story is a story about the death of the city and the fate of the townspeople. A prophecy is also introduced here: just as people killed the snake that strangled the eagle, so in the future Christians will have to defeat Muslims and revive Christianity in the city. Thus, the military event becomes part of the history of the Christian city, represented in its most important events. This is expanded (The shock is akin to “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamaev.”

The text contains detailed descriptions of 4 heroes: Constantine, Patriarch Anastasius, Zustuney and Sultan Magomed. The image of the main character is traditional for military legends, the RN is courageous (he decides to die along with the city), and defends his hometown until his last breath. But a new approach is also visible in his depiction: the author seeks to convey the depth of his feelings through prayers, crying, and depictions of manifestations of his mental state. Patriarch Anastasius constantly supports the Tsar. His image is similar to the image of Cyprian from “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev” - this is the support of the fight against enemies by the Orthodox Church. Zustunei is a minor character, but his special role is that he alone responded to Constantine’s request for help from foreign states. This is the embodiment of the ideal image of a warrior, “brave and wise, and skilled in military affairs.” Magomed is presented in an unusual way. In the beginning, everything is traditional - he is “.faithless and deceitful.” But then his characterization changes - he is shown as a powerful ruler who has gathered enormous forces for the campaign, an experienced and patient commander. After the capture of the city, he shows generosity - he forgives all civilians, and at the sight of Constantine’s head he pays tribute to him: “Obviously, the God of the world gave birth to a king, rather than perish in vain.” In the description of battle scenes, the author does not strive for a detailed depiction of events; there are no landscape elements. The descriptions are based on military formulas: “the slaughter was evil and terrible,” “one was one thousand, and two was one thousand.” The story of Nestor-Iskander, using traditions, complicates the plot due to the introduction of twists and turns, a tendency towards some expansion of the circle of characters and greater versatility in their depiction; the depiction of the enemy undergoes significant changes. The author creates a narrative using stylistic techniques of an emotionally expressive nature, previously used only in hagiographies. Thus, the military narrative in Rus' begins to become more complex, not without the influence of this story. There is a convergence of the image of the main positive hero with the image of the ideal hero of the princely life. It is the non-chronicle stories of this era that are the prerequisites for the creation of a new type of large-scale historical story.

31. The originality of Novgorod historical and legendary stories of the 15th century. (The Tale of the Mayor Shchila, The Tale of the Journey of John of Novgorod on a Demon to Jerusalem).

The genre of fictional story emerges in the era of the Battle of Kulikovo. It had its source in Novgorod historical and fictional stories, which were based on local legends. In the first place in them was the plot's entertainingness, the absence of pronounced didacticism. Among such stories are “The Tale of Posadnik Shchila” and “The Tale of Ivan’s Journey on a Demon.” “The Tale of a Journey” is built on the basis of two miracles: traveling on a demon and saving Ivan from the slander that the demon brought upon him. The oral legend of this arose very early. The plot of this legend—the service of a demon to a man cursed with the sign of the cross—goes back to the fabulous folklore of Ancient Rus'. This story came to us as part of the “Life of John,” which belongs to the Patericon, which consisted of 3 parts, the 2nd of which was a travel story. The story begins with the words that it was “God who created” the fact that the demon ended up in a vessel with water in John’s cell. Next comes the story of the demon making the sign of the cross and John’s journey to Jerusalem. After returning back, the demon tells John to remain silent about this incident, otherwise “the imam will bring temptation upon you.” But he did not fulfill the request and the demon punished him: the demon was transformed into a harlot and left the saint’s cell when others saw it. Soon John was expelled for this. But then, when everything was revealed, people wanted to return the saint and ask him for forgiveness. Because of their prayers, John’s raft floated to the shore, “as if carried through the air.” Then the consequences are told: the prince of Novgorod put up a cross at the place where the saint sailed. The story ends with a biblical quote - the words of Christ about those expelled “for the sake of truth.” The Tale of Posadnik Shchila traces the heretical views of the Strigolniks. This story has a wonderful character. Posadnik Shchil was rich and built the church using interest from loans to other people. When he went to the archbishop to ask to consecrate this church, he had to tell where the money for the construction came from. The Archbishop became angry and said that Shield “has become like Esau; I would like to take a blessing from me for such a divine deed,” and ordered Shield to go home, build a coffin in the wall and lie down in it, and the funeral service was performed over him as it should be. The shield did just that, after which it suddenly fell into the ground. His son went to the saint for help. The saint ordered him to draw a picture on the wall depicting Shield in hell. The son did so, after which he performed a memorial service 3 times for 40 days and distributed alms (according to the teachings of the saint). First, in the picture, Shield's head came out of hell, then his body, and then the whole thing came out. After this, the coffin in which the Shield had fallen came to the surface. And the archbishop, seeing this miracle, consecrated the church. In this story, a miracle comes first: the miracle of the Shield’s sudden disappearance and the miracle of his exit from hell with Divine help. This story arose on the basis of oral legendary tradition.

32. “Walking across 3 seas” - the first merchant voyage.

The genre of “walking”, which arose at the beginning of the 12th century, until the end of the 15th century. Continued to exist as a pilgrimage. Russian travelers described their visits to the holy places of Christianity. Each author brought something of his own to this genre. Significant changes began to occur during the era of the Battle of Kulikovo, when interests in holy places began to be replaced by interest in the events of modern life. A new genre variety has appeared - merchant “travellings”. It became widespread in the 16th and 17th centuries. the object of the image was the impressions of travelers about the countries where they visited for trading purposes. The range of phenomena described has expanded noticeably - everyday life, customs in the countries described. Descriptions of shrines and legends have disappeared. The composition of the walks resembled diary entries. The narrator's personality was revealed more widely through his assessments and emotions. The language was distinguished by its simplicity, abundance of colloquial vocabulary, proverbs and sayings, and foreign language vocabulary. The first merchant walk that came down to us was “The Walk across 3 Seas” by Afanasy Nikitin. At the beginning, there is no self-abasement traditional for the pilgrimage, other than the “sinful walk.” The introduction is a listing of the seas through which he sailed, completely missing

Tatars. 2-way from Derbent to India. The geographical names of the places he visited during this time are listed here. There are practically no descriptions. 3-description of a journey through India. There are a lot of descriptions here, there are stories about the cities he visited and the time it takes to get from one to another. Afanasy talks about life in India, about the climate, customs and way of life, describing everything national (clothing, animals, food) in Russian words so that he is better understood. 4-story about a trip to your homeland. It is characterized by listing the main geographical features and travel times with short descriptions. In conclusion, the author mentions the 3 seas passed and a prayer in a mixture of oriental languages. The predominant principle of narration is chronological. The image of the narrator corresponds to the merchant tradition. Having expanded his range of interests, he meets a lot of new people. The author is third to someone else's, although it is not easy for him. He counts time based on Orthodox holidays (mainly Easter). He suffers from the fact that he cannot fulfill Orthodox customs: “I don’t know the Nativity of Christ, I don’t know other holidays, I don’t know Wednesday or Friday, but I don’t have a book,” etc. The image of his homeland is constantly present in his thoughts, he praises it (though in a mixture of oriental languages), his exclamations are frequent: “May the Russian land be preserved by God! God save her! There is no country like it in this world, although the boyars of the Russian land are unjust.” The author constantly asks God for forgiveness for not keeping fasts. In fact, the author becomes the main character of the work, appearing as an original personality. The language used is colloquial Old Russian, almost devoid of Church Slavonic elements. Foreign words are widely used, even in prayers. In general, the style of walking is the style of a living story by a person who can vividly and clearly describe his impressions. The object of the story also changes - now it is the life of people, their morals and way of life.

33. The emergence of the fictional story genre. Principles of composition and folklore subjects in “The Tale of Dracula.”

The genre of fictional stories arose during the era of the Battle of Kulikovo. It had its source in Novgorod historical and fictional stories, which were based on local legends. In 1st place was the plot's entertaining nature and the lack of pronounced didacticism. Fictional stories with fictional plots. Most of the heroes had historical prototypes, but they either lived in the past or were very far away. The plots go back to folklore. In these stories, the author did not express his attitude to the events. The plots were built either on the principle of a chain or on the principle of open compositions. These stories were originally intended to be exciting reading. The first of these stories is “The Tale of the Mutyansk Governor Dracula.” Its plot is based on oral legends that existed in Europe about the Romanian prince Vlad, who was nicknamed “Tepes” and “Dracula” for his cruelty. The composition of the work is interesting. This is a chain of separate stories about the actions of Dracula. Moreover, the author refrains from evaluating his actions, leaving the right to the reader to do so. Only once does the author talk about his cunning and the fact that Dracula is the namesake of the devil. The story begins with the words that once upon a time there lived in the land of Mutyansk such a ruler, Dracula, and that he was cruel. Then a chain of stories begins, one after another. And at the end it talks about the captivity of Dracula by the Hungarian king and his torture of birds and mice in prison. And after his release, Dracula did not change his character, killing the bailiff who allowed the robber into his yard. The story ends with the story of the death of Dracula and his son Vlad. The story contains a folklore motif of riddles. For example, in the story about how 2 Catholic monks came to Dracula, and he asked each of them what they thought about his deeds. One said that he acted wrongly, because the sovereign should be merciful. The second replied that those executed did evil and were punished according to their deserts, because the sovereign punishes and pardons only for the cause. Dracula impaled the first one and rewarded the second one. There is also another story when an ambassador came to Dracula, and the sovereign showed him a gilded stake and asked what he thought this stake was for. The ambassador replied that it was for a noble person. Dracula replied that what he said was true, and this stake is for him. To which the ambassador said that if he had offended Dracula, then let the sovereign do as he wants. For this, Dracula rewarded the ambassador and released him. And in the same story it directly says that he had such a custom of asking riddles to ambassadors. And if they answered incorrectly, they were executed, and a letter was sent to their king so that in the future they would not send bad ambassadors to Dracula. The plot of this story is traditional for its genre. The main character has a real prototype, the plot is based on legends and folklore, and the composition looks like a chain of plots. Also, the work does not contain a direct author’s assessment, which is also traditional for fiction stories.

34. The problem of the genre “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom”.

It was created in the mid-16th century (but for a long time it was attributed to the 15th century) by the priest and publicist Ermolai-Erasmus. In theory, this work was created as a hagiography. But it was not recognized as a life due to numerous deviations from the canon in the central part, and in the process of reworking it became a story. The basis of its plot was formed on the basis of two oral-poetic, fairy-tale motifs - about the hero-snake fighter and the wise maiden, widespread in folklore. The source of the plot was a local legend about a wise peasant girl who became a princess. Folk tradition had a strong influence on Ermolai-Erasmus, and he created a work not associated with the canons of the hagiographical genre: it is a fascinating narrative narrative, not much like the lives of saints with their exploits and martyrdom for the glory of the church. ‘ The work consists of 4 parts, plot-related. 1-story about the snake fighter. 2-heroes go to get a doctor for the victim of the snake. They meet a girl who speaks in riddles. Next comes the motif of riddles and

tests. 3-life of Peter and Fevronia in marriage, there are elements of folklore narrative. 4-story about the death of Peter and Fevronia and the posthumous miracle. The problem with genre is that a work combines many elements from different genres. The work does not say anything about the childhood of the heroes (unconventional for life), folklore motifs can be traced in all parts. For example, a fairy-tale plot about a snake-fighting hero, a motif of riddles, when Fevronia says that “it’s not right for a house to have no ears and a temple to have no ears” (a dog has ears at home, a child has eyes at home) and when asked where her family answers : “Father and matipoidosha borrow posters. My brother went through his legs in Navi to see,” which means “mother and father went to the funeral, and my brother went to beekeeping.” There is also a folklore motif in the 3rd part, when Fevronya, after a meal, collects crumbs in her hand, and then they turn into incense and incense. This is an echo of the fairy tale about the frog princess, when leftovers turned into swans and a lake. And the departure of Peter and Fevronia from Murom, and then the nobles’ request for their return, also has an echo in the folk tale. But the work also has a spiritual side, characteristic of hagiography. Peter and Fevronia do not talk about love, because Peter does not even want to marry her at first. Their marriage is not carnal, but spiritual and is based on keeping the commandments. Fevronia performs miracles thanks to her spirituality. Another element of life is the posthumous miracle, when Peter and Fevronia, contrary to their dying instructions, are buried in different places, but overnight they still find themselves together in a coffin for two, which remains empty. And their death in one hour is also something unusual, which can only be characteristic of saints. The combination of folklore, hagiography and story elements in one work makes the work multifaceted, but this is the author’s special skill and innovation in literature.

35. “Kazan History” as a new type of historical narrative. Using experience from different genres in a work.

The historical story “Kazan History” was written in the mid-60s 1* in It belongs to the best examples of ancient Russian fiction and occupies a special place in the formation of new forms of historical narration. It poetizes the power of a single centralized state, the activities of Ivan the Terrible and his supporters, and the annexation of the Kazan kingdom to the Moscow state. The author is trying to create a new type of narrative with a clearly expressed ideological plan, theme and a clearly expressed position of the author. “History” consists of several short stories connected by chronology. The introduction talks about the purpose of the work - to tell about the history of the Kazan kingdom and its relationship with Russia. The author speaks about the novelty of the story: “this red ubon story is worthy for us to listen to joyfully.” The author calls Ivan 4 chosen by God, clearly expressing the author’s position. The central part splits into 2 subparts: before the campaigns of Ivan the Terrible and after that. In subpart 1, the narrative follows a chronological path: the beginning of the Kazan kingdom, where folklore motifs about a two-headed snake and a hero-snake fighter who defeated him with the help of magic are traced; The main characters are the Moscow and Kazan kings. The plot is built on the principle of antithesis - Russian victories are replaced by defeats, the action is constantly transferred from Moscow to Kazan and back. This subpart uses a combination of local microplots. There are many military stories of both types here, brought into the general course of events. Basis 2 subparts - stories about the campaigns of Ivan the Terrible. They are presented in the form of military stories with an idealized main character, Ivan 4. but the narrative is multi-figured, the Kazan rulers, warriors, and boyars act in it. This part contains less dating of events, but many symbolic elements: signs, visions, wonders. For example, the dream of the Kazan king, where the bright month absorbs the dark one, and the animals that came to Kazan eat the Kazan animals, which predicts future events. Also the vision of Ivan 4 about the construction of Sviyazhsk and the departure of the patron demon of the city from the mosque. They play different roles in the episode. A significant place is occupied by genres traditional for ancient military history: laments (the tribute to the Kazan queen Sumbeki), praises, prayers. Sumbeki's cry addressed to Kazan plays a symbolic role, predicting his death. The “History” ends with chapters in which praise is given to Kazan, the Principality of Moscow and Ivan 4. The author evaluates the significance of the victory, speaking about the Beauty of Moscow, the OGR of the kingdom. The author's innovation can be traced in the image of the main character - Ivan the Terrible is depicted in many ways, his actions and thoughts are shown in different situations. His desire to avoid bloodshed was noted, which was not the case before, as shown in the tsar’s seven embassies to Kazan. All this speaks about the author’s approach to creating character, although the main method of creating the image of the king—idealization—remains. The image of episodic characters also changes: there was no distinction between positive and negative on national and religious grounds. A traitor can be either one of your own or a stranger, and both will be punished. The images of the troops are also drawn in an unusual way: the author often emphasizes the determination of the enemies, evoking respect for them. And the capture of the city by the Russian army is more like a plunder. The author's attitude is also innovative - he expresses his opinion much more actively, which is shown in the introduction and conclusion, digressions, which are most often of a summary nature. Innovation is also manifested in style: the widespread use of tropes, metaphors, military formulas lose their meaning (spreads them in other words, which destroys them). “History” made extensive use of the traditions of life, military stories, walking, teaching, symbolic and lyrical genre formations. A military tale: a combination of local microplots (“The Tale of Mamaev’s Massacre”); indication of the landscape at the time of day; the combination of the traits of a commander with Christian traits in the main character; a vision of the departure of the patron demon of their city, the penetration of rhetorical techniques into the pictures of the battle-traditions of “The Tale of the Capture of Constantinople.” Life: mention of the virtues of Ivan 4, characteristic of him since childhood; rhetorical devices. Walking: static descriptions of nature expressing the author's admiration. Teachings: artistic means used in laments. Due to such an abundance of genres, it is impossible to decide the genre of a work.

36. Main problems in journalism of the 16th century. The originality of the journalistic creativity of Maxim the Greek.

The ideological orientation of the literature of the Muscovite kingdom predetermined the rapid development of journalism. Works devoted to topical topics of public life were widely distributed in journalism. Areas of journalistic problems: problems related to the formation of an autocratic state (the appearance of the autocrat, the relationship of different classes, the problem of the relationship between royal and church power), church problems (the fight against heresy, the problem of intra-church land ownership, problems of moral character).

One of the most famous publicists was Maxim Grek. He owns a huge literary heritage. In one of his works, “The Word of Maximus the Greek,” the main literary device is allegory. This is also an allegory in genre. At the center of the narrative is the image of the Wife, this is power, Vasily (from Greek, “kingdom”). The main narrative is based on the conversation between the Greek and the Wife. The Greek is depicted as a traveler who meets his wife and asks about her sorrows, but she does not want to tell anything, saying that he will not help her anyway. But still, the narrator persuades her, and she says that her name is Vasily, she is one of the daughters of the king, from whom “every good gift comes and every gift is given to the sons of men.” She talks about how she saw the exploitation of people, and that rulers must follow God's laws, otherwise wars and hardships await everyone. The originality of the Greek's journalism lies precisely in the fact that the main idea of ​​his work is uttered not by himself, but by the allegory, the Wife. This had not been seen in his works before. The Greek claims that a monk must live according to Christian precepts. The work has a clear parable beginning. Another word by Maxim the Greek - “about alien philosophers” - talks about how it is necessary to check the preparedness of Russian translators who come from abroad. Moreover, he gives all this advice to people who will receive visitors “as per my death.” He offers to give visitors his translations so that they can try to “translate according to my translation.” And if he can, then he is a good translator, and if not, then you also need to find out his ability to determine poetic meters. In this word, the Greek makes it clear that he considers his works to be a model, in which he shows innovation, because before him, it was traditional for authors to self-depreciate, but the Greek not only does not follow this canon, but also exalts himself. In “Let the blessed and saints sow the words of praise, let not the books of grammar be called as if they were spoken on behalf of her,” Maxim the Greek writes about the importance of grammar for people, praising it. Moreover, here again the allegory is traced, which is revealed at the very end - now the Greek himself is presented in the role of grammar. He calls on everyone to listen to him and follow his advice, citing examples from antiquity and mentioning Christian writers of the past. Maxim Grek's innovation in the field of journalism is very great: he introduced allegory into journalism and renounced traditional self-deprecation. And his thoughts and advice are generally very relevant and useful.

Criticism of the addressee's style in Kurbsky's second message. The polemical correspondence between Kurbsky and Grozny reflects the clash of two social positions - the high-born boyars and the serving nobility, asserting the need for strong autocratic power. The messages are different in their style—abstractly reasonable and resourceful for Kurbsky and concrete, rude and sarcastic for Ivan the Terrible. In the first message, Kurbsky accuses the tsar of cruelty and oppression of himself, and says that the tsar will have to answer for everything at the Last Judgment. He asks: “Why, O king, did you beat up the mighty men of Israel and betray you to various deaths by the commander given to you by God?” etc. The message is written in an angry, sarcastic style. In response to this, Ivan the Terrible writes an extensive message in which he calls the addressee a false teacher who has illegally usurped the right to instruct the monarch and his subjects. Grozny reproduces individual remarks of Kurbsky and invariably refutes them. The message is created as a kind of confession of faith and principles of the Russian autocracy. Grozny parodies the style of the addressee, his structure of thoughts and literary style. The king ridicules all his arguments, distorting them and ridiculing them ironically. For example, Kurbsky in his message speaks of the blood shed for the Tsar on the battlefield, and Grozny ironically plays on these words, saying that the Tsar is not guilty of shed blood, and that a Christian should not regret the feat in the name of the Motherland. Grozny repeats key phrases, building a series of associations in the form of negative parallelism. Grozny refutes all accusations against him, guided by the Bible, like Kurbsky. In his second letter to the Tsar, Kurbsky criticizes the “broadcast and noisy” letter of Ivan the Terrible, declaring brevity the main criterion of the author’s literary training. Kurbsky considers unacceptable the excessive quoting of “parameiniki” - 1schgzl from the Old Testament, violation of the etiquette of correspondence and the abundance of quotes from his own letter, which he tells the Tsar about. The style of this message is no longer so caustic and angry. Kurbsky reconciles himself with some statements, saying that he has already come to terms with oppression, “let God be your judge on this.” Kurbsky says: “I no longer understand what we want.” The style is close to didactic, Kurbsky reflects on the actions of Ivan the Terrible, but does not condemn them so brightly, relying on God’s help: “and for this sake, let’s wait a little, because I believe that the coming of Jesus Christ is near.” Ivan the Terrible's second message also uses stylized parodies and irony. He, imitating Kurbsky, begins to complain: “I have received colic of misfortune from you, colic of insult, colic of annoyance and reproach! And for what? He parodies the humble style of Kurbsky, the style of his message approaches self-deprecation. This correspondence was the most interesting document of the era and constituted an important stage in the history of Russian journalism of the 16th-17th centuries.

38. Generalizing literary works of the middleXVIV. Ideological intent, stylistic originality, significance of monuments

General stylistic traditions and significance of monuments. In 1547-1549. There is a church-wide canonization of many Russian saints who were previously considered locally revered. This action required documentary and spiritual justification. For this purpose, Metropolitan Macarius carries out his plan - to collect all books of religious content approved in Russia - and creates the “Great Chetya Menaion”. For this purpose, about 60 lives of new canonized saints, written in a rhetorical style, were compiled. But there is no longer any historical information left about these saints, so the chroniclers made up facts and wrote in the likeness of other lives. The “Cheti-Minea” included: lives; books of the Holy Scriptures and interpretations on them; patericon; works of South Slavic and Russian writers, recognized as models; collection “The Bee”, “The Tale of the Devastation of Jerusalem”, “The Walking of Abbot Daniel”. The most important event in the spiritual life of the mid-16th century. The creation of the “Stoglavy Cathedral” also appeared. It was called upon to regulate all aspects of spiritual and practical life. His decrees concerned church land ownership, norms of social order, private life of the clergy, etc. His goal was to create the foundations of a unified state and introduce order into Russian life. This council was distinguished by its stern and doctrinal didacticism. It wrote about what icon painting should be like (focused on Rublev), church books (necessarily corrected). Domostroy served the purpose of regulating family life. The author has not been precisely identified, but it is believed that the priest of the Annunciation Cathedral, Sylvester, had a hand in this book. The source of Domostroi were biblical texts, Chrysostom, documentary records and, possibly, observations. The book regulated the daily life of an Orthodox person. Often its significance is limited to the practical side, but the most important task of the house-building was to translate into real life the idea of ​​​​the soul-bearing nature of royal power. The task is to raise a submissive subject and an exemplary Christian, to create a unified model of life in Russia. The genre of “House Construction” is spiritual teaching. His style is distinguished by didacticism and morality. Its chapters can be divided into 3 groups: defining a person’s relationship to spiritual and secular authority; worldly structure (family life arrangement); house building (tips on housekeeping). Sylvester added chapter 64, where he gave advice based on his experience. The main defining features of this literature were universality, encyclopedicism, didactic and polemical orientation. The scribes of this time generalized the experience of their predecessors, combining historical subjects, parables, and teachings into large monumental ensembles. Also, their works provided a new aesthetic design for the main ideological ideas of the time.

39. Development of the genre of walking in the 16-17 centuries. "Trifon Korobeinikov's walk to Constantinople."

In the 16th century Along with merchants' travels, embassy travel notes began to appear, called “item lists” or “lists”. They contained the issues on which negotiations were conducted and recorded the etiquette of the embassy reception. The structure of the ambassador's narratives was more fully described by Prokofiev. He said that they begin by indicating the time and place where the embassy is sent and for whose purpose, and the route is described. In the central part, he pointed to descriptions of the reception ceremony and descriptions of negotiations. He also mentioned inserting descriptions of landscape and everyday life into the story. These works acquired elements of a business style, combined with traditional colloquial vocabulary. The text also included the speeches of the characters and a detailed description of the course of events, which made the story less DYNAMIC, BUT more ACCURATE. In “The Walk of Trifon Korobeinikov,” the convergence of pilgrimage walking with two new types is traced. The circulation begins with a message about the departure time of Tryphon and a description of its route, indicating the distance between points. The main text is divided into travel essays, which tell about a specific locality or section of the route. The descriptions are businesslike and brief, attention is drawn to the size of the city, the material of the buildings (“the town of Orsha is stone”, “the town of Borisov Drevyan is small”), the presence of trading areas and methods of protecting the cities: “And the Menska-Slutsk city has better trades and people, and the city has the gates and at the prison there are collars and archers with guns, but they won’t let a foreigner into the prison without telling them)). This is reminiscent of merchants' walks. Descriptions of nature and detailed descriptions of topography, traditional for pilgrimage, also appear. An element of the ambassadorial article list (“On the passage of Russian ambassadors to the sovereign of Voloshesk Aaron”) is also introduced into circulation: “on the 13th day of March at 3 o’clock at night,” it is said how the ambassadors were received: “And in the room a locker was made, in the man’s belt, carpets; and on the locker the Voloshsky sovereign sits in place.” The story “About the Tours Mosque and about the dervyshes who have monks in our place” is reminiscent of an everyday sketch. Attention is drawn to the clothes and appearance of people: “mustaches, and braids, and eyebrows are shaved”; the life of the “chambers” for wanderers is described in detail. 2 essays in “Walking” are devoted to a description of the shrines of Constantinople. The “Tale of the Tsar City is not about everything” describes in detail the location of the city, mentioning the main shrines: Noah’s axe, the pillar of Constantine Flavius, the Temple of Sophia, etc. The author recalls the legend about the departure of the city's patron angel, retelling it in his own way. Mention is made of the plight of the Orthodox Church and the Patriarch. In the second essay, “On the destruction of the temple of St. George,” a legend is given about the miracle of St. George, who defended his temple from the Turkish king, and not only the preservation of the temple, but also the mercy of the Sultan to his servants is called a miracle. The story is dynamic and concise, with extensive use of dialogue. At the end, the Blachernae Church, the monasteries of Pantocrator, and the Apocalypse are mentioned. “Walking” cannot be classified into a specific type. It refers to social travel, because... Most of the information is not related to religious purposes. There is no clear author's assessment. The language is traditional for “walking” - colloquial vocabulary and phraseological units, a few foreign words, always with translation. There is a tendency towards the creation of a secular type of walking, as well as the combination of various genre features in order to create a documentary and interesting narrative.

40. Main directions of development in literature about the Troubles. The artistic originality of “The Tale of the Death and Burial of M.V. Skopin-Shuisky.

The literature of this time is divided into 2 stages: 1-before 1613. Journalistic works, small in volume, one-sidedly representing the heroes. Lyrical and symbolic genres and business documents were combined. This stage includes “The New Tale of the Glorious Russian Kingdom”, “The Tale of the Repose and Burial of Skopin-Shuisky. 2-20s 17th centuries The works tell about the entire Time of Troubles, strive for an objective assessment of events, and pay special attention to historical figures. This literature combines genres in different ways. These include the “Chronicle Book”, “Vremennik” by Ivan Timofeev, “The Tale of Vraam Palitsev”. In 17th century literature. new relationships are established between the historical and the fictional. The stories based on historical names contain fiction; facts of Russian history are combined with motifs from fairy tales and legends. The fictional characters operate in a setting typical of Russian society in the 17th century. situations, the existential and the everyday form a single alloy, which indicates the rapprochement of literature with life. A striking example of such evolution is the “Tale of the Death and Burial of Prince Skopin-Shuisky,” full of rumors and legends. The unexpected death of a young military leader with a heroic physique struck the consciousness of his contemporaries and gave rise to the birth of the legend of his poisoning. The author of the story also adheres to it, saturating the narrative with motives coming from folk songs and laments. The plot is this: at the feast of Prince Vorotynsky, Maria Shuiskaya brings him a deadly drink, and that was “a fierce mortal drink.” The idea of ​​poisoning is compared to “catching a treacherous thought like a bird in the forest, like frying a lynx.” And Mikhail dies on the night of April 23-24, in which the author sees symbolism, because... takes place “from the days of the great warrior and passion-bearer George to the days of the governor Sava Stratshat.” This comparison was supposed to “sanctify” the image of the Russian military leader, making him the moral ideal of the Time of Troubles. Skopin-Shuisky appears as an epic hero; the author masterfully uses comparisons and poetic means of the folk epic. The prince is called the “heavenly sun”, which the warriors cannot “get enough of”. His power is exaggerated - in the whole state they cannot find a coffin for him: “an oak block.” Michael is compared to King David and Samson. A lot of hyperbole is used in describing the grief of the people-people following the coffin as many as the “stars of heaven”; the lament for it is described: “from the people there are screams and wails, a lot of voices singing the tombstone, and not being able to hear the voices of those singing,” but about those who heard all this are told: “Even if the heart is forged and made of stone, even that one will be poured out in pity.” The crying of the mother, close to a folk tale, the crying of the Swedish military leader, traditional for high oratory, and the crying of the Russian people gives the story a special emotional coloring. It is repeated several times that the singing could not be heard because of the crying. At the end there is a vision predicting the death of Skopin-Shuisky, which violates the chronology, because it was “15 days after the feast of the Resurrection of Christ.” It is told by a resident of the city, having learned about the death of Mikhail, saying that it “came true at this present time.”

41.Literary activity of Archpriest Avvakum. Stylistics and genre originality of “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself.”

Avvakum is the author of more than 80 works, some of which have not reached us. His works: “Book of Conversations”, “Book of Interpretations”, petitions to Alexei Mikhailovich and Fyodor Alekseevich, letters, messages, etc. His work is permeated with a passionate denunciation of the official church and secular autocratic power from the position of a supporter of the Old Believers. He became an innovator in the literary field in terms of style and principles of literary depiction, although he was an opponent of innovation in art. His most famous work, “Life,” is an autobiography. In his introduction, Avvakum writes about the influence of his confessor Epiphanius on him and follows the traditional method of self-abasement. The style of his life is similar to confessional, because he blurs the line between himself and the reader, creating an atmosphere of empathy. Likhachev defined Avvakum’s style as a style of pathetic simplification - “grounding” the high (the story of the miraculous feeding of the prisoner, when Avvakum does not know whether it was an angel or a man) and poeticization of the low (the story about the death of a chicken, which “brought 2 eggs a day for food "). It goes beyond the traditional framework of hagiography: the heroes of the work are not clearly sinners or righteous. Habakkuk himself almost succumbs to temptation when a harlot comes to him, which had never happened before in the hagiographic tradition. And the image of the harlot herself is multifaceted - she is a sinner, but she came to confess - and this somewhat “cleanses” her. Habakkuk creates a new image - a “holy sinner”, which leads to a combination of two narrative plans: the author’s solemn sermon and repentant confession. Habakkuk combined church language, swearing, and colloquial language. Another facet of the innovation of life is the combination of the comic and tragic. When the archpriest describes returning from exile, talks about crossing the river, when the archpriest loses her strength and falls, another person trips over her and also falls on her. He apologizes, to which she replies: “What, daddy, did you run over me?” Describing the horrors of his imprisonment, he jokes, saying: “I’m lying like a dog in a straw,” etc. The life is also full of satirical portraits of Avvakum’s enemies. For example, in a letter to Alexei Mikhailovich he writes: “Poor, poor, crazy king!” Also, Avvakum’s innovation was manifested in writing not a journalistic work with elements of autobiography, but an integral biography. The work turns into the history of the first years of the Old Believer movement, the history of Russia in the second half of the 17th century. In addition to Avvakum, his life contains his companions and enemies, and the spatio-temporal boundaries of the narrative are widely represented. All these innovative features make the life an outstanding work of its kind.

42.Historical basis, originality of style of “The Tale of the Azov Siege of the Don Cossacks.”

In the 17th century A series of stories about Azov appears, where the patriotic feat of the Cossacks is glorified. Military stories written at this time reflected examples of the mass heroism of the Cossacks during the capture of the fortress. “The Tale of the Azov Seat” was written in the 40s. 17th century based on actual historical events, when in the spring of 1637 the Don Cossacks, taking advantage of the Turkish Sultan’s employment in the war with Persia, captured the Azov fortress without the knowledge of the Moscow government. This opened the way for the Russians to the Azov and Black Seas and protected them from constant attacks by the Turks and Tatars in the south of the Moscow state. But, fearing complications in relations with Turkey, Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich did not accept Azov, ordering the Cossacks to leave it. The genre is a historical story. The first part of the story is reminiscent of a business document in style, it talks in detail about the size of the Turkish army, the dates are indicated: “Insch on the 24th day at the first hour of the day they came to us to plow it near the city)”, “every head in the regiment of Janices had 12,000)) . The entire work, in fact, is an official report on the events of the Azov sitting, because at the beginning it says that “the Don Cossacks came... to Grand Duke Mikhail Fedorovich... and brought a painting to their seat of siege)). The following narrative introduces this painting. Different styles are intertwined in the story, for example, before the start of hostilities, an ambassador comes from the Turks with a speech in which he tries to call for repentance and pity: “you attacked him like hungry wolves, and you did not spare him any male age... and you put therefore take upon yourself the cruel name of beast.” Next, service to the Turkish king is offered for a reward. After which a response message from the Cossacks is given, in which they talk about their distrust of the Turks and the tsar’s insidious plans. These messages give the story a rhetorical, oratorical style. The work is also distinguished by its lyrical style: for example, the prayer of the Cossacks before the battle, the repentance of the Cossacks before the Tsar: “Forgive us, servant of your sinners, Sovereign Tsar and Grand Duke Mikhailo Fedorovich)). This poetic place is based on a Cossack folk song, which indicates the influence of folklore on the story. The influence of military stories is also noticeable here (in the descriptions of battles). In the last part, a rhetorical style arises again - an exchange of messages between the Cossacks and the Turks. Then a vision is given: the Mother of God appears to the Cossacks and blesses them for battle. Then again the story takes on a documentary style - it tells about the number of living and wounded Cossacks after the battle, the exact dates are given (the capture of Azov - September 26, when “the Turk Pashas and the Turks and the Crimean Tsar ... ran away to persecute us with eternal shame))). ,

The story is distinguished by patriotic pathos, accuracy of descriptions, vernacular language and poetic style, in which traditional techniques of military stories and Don folklore are noticeable. This is an original, innovative work in both content and style.

43. General characteristics of satirical stories of the 17th century. Analysis of one of the stories. Work by V.P. Adrianova-Peretz "At the origins of Russian satire."

In the 17th century Satire is developing very well. Satirical stories can be divided into 3 groups: anti-feudal, anti-clerical and everyday. Anti-feudal ones include “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich”, “The Tale of Shemyakin’s Court”. To the anti-clerical ones - “The Kolyazin Petition”, “The Tale of Hawk Moth”. Everyday stories are fictional. The works contain fictitious characters and events. “The Tale of Misfortune” belongs to this type. They reflected the dramatic clash of “oldness” and “newness” in the sphere of personal and public life. “The Tale of Hawkmoth” has 3 parts: 1-introduction, 2-conversation between Hawkmoth and the inhabitants of paradise, 3-exit of John the Evangelist. This construction speaks of the novelistic nature of the work. This story is an anti-clerical satire. The first part talks about who the hawk moth is: “one who drinks early on the feasts of God.” He dies and an angel comes for him, after which the second part begins - the communication of the hawk moth with those who approach the gates of heaven - the Apostle Peter, the Apostle Paul, King David, King Solomon. Hawkmoth asks them to let him in, but they answer him that sinners cannot go to heaven. To which the hawk moth remembers something from their life about each one, from which each one “got away and was quickly put to shame.” In the third part, John the Theologian approaches the gates, who also says: “You cannot enter heaven as a hawkmoth.” To which Hawkmoth replies that in his Gospel it is written: “if we love each other, God will protect us both.” And he says that then John must either let him in or renounce writing the Gospel. This is how the hawk moth goes to heaven. In this work, the Supreme dogma is violated, the Divine court turns out to be unfair. The sinner goes to heaven. This story, a parody of medieval tales about the afterlife, angrily denounces church piety and church veneration of famous saints. All the saints mentioned here turn out to be unworthy of heaven. And the hawk moth acts as an angry accuser and at the same time a cunning speaker. Therefore, this story was included in the index of banned books.

44. Problematics and genre ambiguity of “everyday” stories of the 17th century. Analysis of one of the stories.

By the 2nd half of the 17th century. In Russian literature, a special genre variety of the everyday story is emerging, which reflects the drama of the collision of “oldness” and “newness” in the sphere of personal and public life. If real heroes of historical stories became participants in unreal events, then the adventures of fictional characters in everyday stories were firmly integrated into the surrounding Russian reality. All events and characters in these works are fictitious. These works were distinguished by journalisticism and authorial freedom. The author himself could resolve the dispute in favor of one or another hero, depending on his moral positions. The everyday story of the late Middle Ages acquires the features of philosophical prose. The everyday story reflected the democratization of the hero and the emerging interest in the “little man.” “The Tale of Misfortune” was created among merchants in the 2nd half of the 17th century. The story is written in folk verse, based on an everyday story, accompanied by lyrical moral teachings. The hero of the story, Well done, he has no name, did not listen to his parents, who said: “Don’t go, child, to feasts and brother’s parties, don’t sit on the seat, don’t drink, child, two spells for one!” so as not to be a beggar. . He “wanted to live as he pleased” and did the opposite, so he fell “into immeasurable nakedness and barefootedness.” And the story draws a parallel between Adam and Eve, who succumbed to temptation, and Well done. The image of a serpent-tempter, a “called brother,” appears, who gets him drunk and then robs him. Further, the parallel runs through the motive of exile - Well done “it’s shameful ... to appear to his father and mother” and he decides to leave “to a foreign country.” There he goes to a feast, where he tells people about everything and asks for help. They help him and give him advice based on Domostroevsky morality. Thanks to them, Well done “from his great intelligence he gained more belly than Starov; I looked for a bride for myself according to custom.” Misfortune-Grief learned about this and appeared to the Well-Behaved in a dream, foreshadowing: “you will be taken away from your bride... of gold and silver, you will be killed.” But the Good Man didn’t believe the dream, then Grief appeared to him in a dream in the form of the Archangel Gabriel, saying that bliss is to be poor and drunk. After this, the Good Man follows the instructions of Grief, but then he realizes his mistake: “I, the good fellow, have been pushed into trouble.” But Grief does not let him go, saying that the Good Man will not go anywhere from him. Having struggled in vain with Grief, “the fine fellow went to the monastery to take monastic vows,” which is how he was saved. The hero of the story is a degraded person, but he worries about it. This is the first image of a tramp in Russian literature, with whom the author sympathizes, but at the same time condemns. The image of Grief is built on folklore principles. Grief forces a person to choose the wrong path, but it is also retribution for his mistakes when it says: “And whoever does not listen to his parents’ teachings is good, I will teach him, O unfortunate grief.” This work is similar in genre to a parable or a lesson, because... full of morality given by concrete example. Also, the story is very close to folk songs about the Mountain; certain passages are of an epic nature (for example, the arrival of the Well done to the feast and his boast). The work is close to folklore, as can be seen in the comparisons: Well done - “rock dove”, Woe - “Gray hawk”, etc. Based on this, we can say that the story is a fusion of folklore and literature; it goes beyond genre systems, combining many genres and traditions.

45. History of the emergence and repertoire of the court theater. The play "Judith".

The court theater of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich arose in October 1672 and became a new state “fun”. The Tsar hired foreign actors for his theater. Researchers believe that the initiator of the creation of this theater was the boyar Artamon Matveev. He had his own home theater with musicians, and he himself repeatedly acted as an actor. Until 1672, performances were staged in the Izmailovsky Palace, in the Kremlin, in the house of the Tsar’s father-in-law, Boyar Miloslavsky, and in the “comedy choir” at the Aptekarsky Courtyard. The king entrusted the writing of the first play on the biblical story about Esther and her marriage with the Persian king, after which she uncovered the conspiracy and saved her people from extermination, to the pastor of the Moscow German Settlement, Gregory. The main problems of the play: true royal power and mercy, pride and humility, were very popular at that time. On October 17, 1672, its premiere took place. The play consisted of a prologue and 7 acts, divided into phenomena. The performance ran for 10 hours without a break. The performance delighted the king. Thus, the history of the Russian theater began with the court theater, and the history of Russian drama began with the “Artaxerxes Action.” The first plays on the Russian stage were written on subjects from the Bible, lives of saints, history and ancient mythology. The connection of the plays with modernity was emphasized by poetic prefaces. Such plays include the play “Judith”. It tells about the siege of the Judean city of Bethulia by Assyrian troops under the leadership of the general Holofernes and his murder by the Bethulian Judith. The play has 7 acts, divided into “entry”; pathetic scenes sometimes give way to comic ones; in addition to heroic characters, the play features buffoonish characters. For example, when Judith announces her intention to kill Holofernes, and the situation becomes tense because... everyone is worried, Abra, Judith’s servant, asks: “What are the Asirians like: are they like this, or what people?” The connection of the play with modernity is evidenced by the appeal to Alexei Mikhailovich, which precedes the text of the play. The first plays of the Russian theater were close in genre to “English” comedies; their artistic specificity was the abundance of bloody, crudely naturalistic scenes and dramatic collisions. For example, Judith showed everyone the bloody head of Holofernes. After this, Judith says to the maid Abra: “Quietly put me into your feast,” and she praises Judith’s courage and utters a comic phrase: “What will that wretched man say when he wakes up, and Judith is gone with his head?” The captured soldier Susakim, a comic character, is subjected to a “mock execution.” Having risen, the hero cannot understand for a long time whether he is alive, and having found clothes and shoes, he pretends to be looking for his head, asking: “Ow, gentlemen! If any of you…hid my head, I humbly ask him…to return it to me.” The “changeability” of life is emphasized by the movement of action in the play. In the play it is transferred from the palace to the military camp of Holofernes, and from there to the besieged city and the house of Judith. The official speech of the courtiers is replaced by the riotous song of drunken soldiers, and the lyrical speeches of the heroine are replaced by choirs. Thus, this play was typical of that time and was a striking example of 17th century drama.

46. ​​School theater. "The Comedy of the Parable of the Prodigal Son."

At the end of the 17th century. School theater was born in Rus'. Created based on the plots of the books of the Holy Scriptures, works of school drama consisted of long monologues written in syllabics; they were spoken not only by biblical characters, but also by allegorical images (Mercy, Envy). These plays were staged at the Kiev-Mohyla Academy, at the Zaikonospassky school of Simeon of Polotsk, at the Moscow Slavic-Greco-Roman Academy, and the school of Dmitry Rostov. One of the first Russian educators and baroque poets was Simeon of Polotsk. His plays “The Comedy of the Parable of the Prodigal Son” and “The Tragedy of King Nebuchadnezzar” brought him fame. The “Comedy” was written on a gospel plot; it contained a conflict typical of that era when “children” did not listen to their parents, were burdened by their care, and left home in dreams of seeing the world. The problem of a young man’s behavior was also reflected in the stories of the second half of the 17th century, such as “The Tale of Misfortune,” “The Tale of Savva Gruditsin,” and “The Tale of Frol Skobeev.” The play is small in size, its composition is very simple, the setting is conventional, the number of characters is small, and the characters are nameless (for example, Father, Sue the youngest, Son the eldest, Servant of the Prodigal, etc.). There are no allegories in the play, and all this brings the “Comedy” closer to school dramas and ensured its success. The comedy begins with a prologue, which calls for attention to watch this play. Then the first part begins, where the father distributes the inheritance to his sons, for which they thank the father, but the younger one asks for blessings and says: “I want to begin my path. What am I getting in the house? What will I study? I’d rather get richer in my mind while traveling.” In the second part, the youngest son leaves home and talks about his drinking and revelry. The third part consists of only one sentence: “The Prodigal Son comes out hungover, the servants console him in various ways; it's depressing." V~4-<ш_частиговорвтсал его нищете и голоде. В 5-ой части сын возвращается к отцу, а в 6-ой он показан уже одетым и накормленным, восхваляющим Бога. Далее следует эпилог, в котором говорится о назначении пьесы и наставляет^ запомнить её. Из всего этого следует, что стиль пьесы-поучительный. И несмотря на то, что она названа комедией, по сути своей это притча.

47. Poetic originality of the poetry collections of Simeon of Polotsk.

One of the first Russian educators and baroque poets was Simeon of Polotsk. Shortly before his death, he collected his writings and poems into huge collections - “Rhythmologion” and “Multicolored Vertograd”. His intense work was associated with the task of rooting a new verbal culture, baroque in nature, on Russian soil. The “helicopter city” he created amazed the reader with its “multicolors)). The poems were devoted to a variety of topics and were arranged in the collection according to thematic headings, where they were arranged alphabetically by title. In these collections, he denounced what was at odds with his idea of ​​the ideal, and tirelessly praised the king, because. believed that this was his “service” to Russia. Simeon of Polotsk was an experimental poet who turned to the means of painting and architecture to give his poems clarity and to capture the reader’s imagination. In “The Russian Eagle” there is a form of “acrostic poem”, the initial letters of which form the sentence: “Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, Lord, grant him many summers,” as well as rebus poems, “echoes” with rhyming questions and answers, and figured poems. This required skill and sharpness of mind from the poet. Baroque poetry also cultivated “multilingual” poems, which was reflected in Polotsky’s poem dedicated to Christmas, which he wrote in Slavic, Polish, and Latin. The Baroque traditions also manifested themselves through the high style, oriented towards the Church Slavonic language with a predilection for complex words. Simeon, for example, used complex adjectives, often invented by himself: “good-made”, “divinely-inspired”, etc. The things and phenomena he depicted often had an allegorical meaning; they “spoke”, teaching. Sometimes the teaching took the form of an entertaining, satirical story. For example, the poem “Drunkenness” (a drunkard, having come home, saw 4 sons instead of 2, because he saw double; he began accusing his wife of debauchery and orders him to pick up a red-hot piece of iron to prove his innocence. But the wife asks her husband to give her a piece from the oven, after which, having been burned, he sobers up and understands everything. It all ends with a moral), “Toads of the obedient” (toads in the swamp screamed and disturbed the “praying monk.” One of them goes to swamp and says to the toads: “In the name of Christ I bequeath to you ... not to be such," after which the toads were no longer heard. At the end, a moral is given, where the cry of the toads is compared with the “hugging” of women and it is said that they can be silenced in the same way ). Scientists identify 3 main trends in Simeon’s work: didactic-educational (“Multicolored Vertograd”), panegric (“Rhythmologion”) and polemical (treatise “The Rod of Government,” directed against schismatics).

Origins and poetic originality of the Baroque style in Russian literature.

Baroque is one of the first European styles presented in Russian culture. Italy is considered the birthplace of Baroque, the country where it reached its apogee is Spain. Baroque came to Rus' from Poland through Ukraine and Belarus. In Russia, it replaced the Middle Ages and became a kind of Renaissance of Russian culture. This led to the loss of the religious and philosophical self-absorption of the Baroque and its promotion of the secularization of culture. Therefore, the Baroque in Russian culture acquired an optimistic pathos, without developing the philosophical motives of the “frailty of life,” and proclaimed human life as continuous pleasures and exciting journeys. This idea of ​​​​the “variegation” of the world formed in literature a new type of hero - the hunter of Fortune, an inquisitive and enterprising person who enjoys life. Baroque in its Russian version affected mainly the culture of the upper classes; it was not large-scale, because was limited in time. It glorified science, education and reason. In Baroque poetry, sophistication and learning were valued, “multilingual” poems were welcomed, which was reflected in Polotsky’s poem dedicated to Christmas, which he wrote in Slavic, Polish, and Latin. The Baroque traditions also manifested themselves through the high style, oriented towards the Church Slavonic language with a predilection for complex words. Simeon, for example, used complex adjectives, often invented by himself: “good-working,” “God-inspired, flower-bearing,” etc. Despite all its elitism, the Baroque was addressed to the people and served the purposes of their education and upbringing. Filled with scientific and journalistic material, historical and geographical information, Baroque poetry sought to go beyond the boundaries of literature. The discoveries of the Baroque include a new look at a person, whose image is devoid of Renaissance harmony. The intricate plot forced the characters to actively move in space, and an abundance of landscapes and portraits appeared in the work. The world of Baroque amazed us with its whimsical forms, diversity and polyphony. And the Russian version of Baroque, unlike the European one, was distinguished by moderation. In the Russian tradition, interest in naturalistic scenes of love and death and descriptions of the afterlife was also weakened. Baroque rooted poetry in Russian literature, enriching it with new poetic forms. Their range is very wide: from poetic transcriptions of liturgical texts to epigrams, from panegric greetings addressed to the king to inscriptions for images of alphabets. Baroque liberated the poet, giving him freedom to choose the form of his work, and this search often led to the destruction of boundaries between genres, different types of art, and art and science. Poems could take the form of a dialogue, become part of a pictorial composition, etc. form began to prevail over content: poets composed acrostics, figure verses, created labyrinths with a repeatedly read phrase, “echo.” “Leoninsky” poems with rhyming hemistiches are coming into fashion. Although the literature of Russian Baroque seems far from strict norms and canons, it had its own pattern, which led to the emergence of stable images and phraseological units: Tsar - “eagle”, “sun”, Russia - “sky”. Later, these formulas, ideas and techniques were adopted and modified in the literature of Russian classicism.

Preliminary remarks. The concept of Old Russian literature means, in a strict terminological sense, the literature of the Eastern Slavs of the 11th - 13th centuries. until their subsequent division into Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. Since the 14th century The special book traditions that led to the formation of Russian (Great Russian) literature are clearly visible, and from the 15th century. - Ukrainian and Belarusian. In philology, the concept of Old Russian literature is traditionally used in relation to all periods in the history of Russian literature of the 11th - 17th centuries.

All attempts to find traces of East Slavic literature before the baptism of Rus' in 988 ended in failure. The evidence presented is either crude forgeries (the pagan chronicle “Vlesova Book”, covering a huge era from the 9th century BC to the 9th century AD inclusive), or untenable hypotheses (the so-called “Askold Chronicle” in the Nikon Code of the 16th century. among articles 867-89). This does not mean at all that there was a complete absence of writing in pre-Christian Rus'. Treaties of Kievan Rus with Byzantium in 911, 944 and 971. as part of the "Tale of Bygone Years" (if we accept the evidence of S.P. Obnorsky) and archaeological finds (an inscription from firing on the Gnezdovo pot of the first decades or no later than the middle of the 10th century, a Novgorod inscription on a wooden cylinder lock, according to V.L. . Ioannina, 970-80) show that in the 10th century, even before the baptism of Rus', the Cyrillic letter could be used in official documents, government apparatus and everyday life, gradually preparing the ground for the spread of writing after the adoption of Christianity in 988.

§ 1. The emergence of Old Russian literature
§ 1.1. Folklore and literature. The predecessor of Old Russian literature was folklore, widespread in the Middle Ages in all layers of society: from peasants to the princely-boyar aristocracy. Long before Christianity it was already litteratura sine litteris, literature without letters. In the written era, folklore and literature with their genre systems existed in parallel, mutually complementing each other, sometimes coming into close contact. Folklore accompanied ancient Russian literature throughout its history: from the chronicles of the 11th - early 12th centuries. (see § 2.3) to the “Tale of Woe-Misfortune” of the transitional era (see § 7.2), although in general it was poorly reflected in writing. In turn, literature influenced folklore. The most striking example of this is spiritual poems, folk songs of religious content. They were strongly influenced by church canonical literature (biblical and liturgical books, lives of saints, etc.) and apocrypha. Spiritual poems retain a vivid imprint of dual faith and represent a motley mixture of Christian and pagan ideas.

§ 1.2. The Baptism of Rus' and the beginning of the “book teaching”. The adoption of Christianity in 988 under the Grand Duke of Kiev Vladimir Svyatoslavich brought Rus' into the orbit of influence of the Byzantine world. After baptism, the rich Old Church Slavonic literature created by the Thessalonica brothers Constantine the Philosopher, Methodius and their disciples in the second half of the 9th-10th centuries was transferred to the country from the southern and, to a lesser extent, from the western Slavs. A huge corpus of translated (mainly from Greek) and original monuments included biblical and liturgical books, patristics and church teaching literature, dogmatic-polemical and legal works, etc. This book fund is common to the entire Byzantine-Slavic Orthodox world , ensured within it a consciousness of religious, cultural and linguistic unity for centuries. From Byzantium the Slavs adopted primarily church-monastic book culture. The rich secular literature of Byzantium, which continued the traditions of antiquity, with few exceptions was not in demand by the Slavs. South Slavic influence at the end of the 10th - 11th centuries. marked the beginning of ancient Russian literature and book language.

Ancient Rus' was the last of the Slavic countries to accept Christianity and became acquainted with the Cyril and Methodius book heritage. However, in a surprisingly short time, she turned him into her national treasure. Compared to other Orthodox Slavic countries, Ancient Rus' created a much more developed and genre-diverse national literature and preserved the pan-Slavic book fund immeasurably better.

§ 1.3. Worldview principles and artistic method of ancient Russian literature. For all its originality, Old Russian literature had the same basic features and developed according to the same general laws as other medieval European literatures. Her artistic method was determined by the peculiarities of medieval thinking. He was distinguished by theocentrism - belief in God as the primary cause of all being, goodness, wisdom and beauty; providentialism, according to which the course of world history and the behavior of each person is determined by God and is the implementation of his pre-planned plan; understanding of man as a creature in the image and likeness of God, endowed with reason and free will in choosing good and evil. In the medieval consciousness, the world bifurcated into a heavenly, higher, eternal, inaccessible to touch, revealed to the elect in a moment of spiritual insight (“the hedgehog cannot be seen by the flesh, but is heard by the spirit and mind”), and the earthly, lower, temporary. This faint reflection of the spiritual, ideal world contained images and likenesses of divine ideas by which man came to know the Creator. The medieval worldview ultimately predetermined the artistic method of ancient Russian literature, which was religious and symbolic at its core.

Old Russian literature is imbued with a Christian moralistic and didactic spirit. Imitation and assimilation to God were understood as the highest goal of human life, and service to him was seen as the basis of morality. The literature of Ancient Rus' had a clearly defined historical (and even factual) character and for a long time did not allow artistic fiction. It was characterized by etiquette, traditionalism and retrospectiveness, when reality was assessed based on ideas about the past and the events of the sacred history of the Old and New Testaments.

§ 1.4. Genre system of ancient Russian literature. In the ancient Russian era, literary examples were of exceptionally great importance. First of all, translated Church Slavonic biblical and liturgical books were considered such. Exemplary works contained rhetorical and structural models of different types of texts, defined the written tradition, or, in other words, codified the literary and linguistic norm. They replaced grammars, rhetoric and other theoretical manuals on the art of words, common in medieval Western Europe, but absent for a long time in Rus'. By reading Church Slavonic examples, many generations of ancient Russian scribes comprehended the secrets of literary technique. The medieval author constantly turned to exemplary texts, used their vocabulary and grammar, sublime symbols and images, figures of speech and tropes. Sanctified by hoary antiquity and the authority of holiness, they seemed unshakable and served as a measure of literary skill. This rule constituted the alpha and omega of ancient Russian creativity.

The Belarusian educator and humanist Francis Skorina argued in the preface to the Bible (Prague, 1519) that the books of the Old and New Testaments are an analogue of the “seven free arts” that formed the basis of medieval Western European education. Grammar is taught by the Psalter, logic, or dialectics, by the Book of Job and the Epistles of the Apostle Paul, rhetoric by the works of Solomon, music by biblical chants, arithmetic by the Book of Numbers, geometry by the Book of Joshua, astronomy by the Book of Genesis. and other sacred texts.

Biblical books were also perceived as ideal genre examples. In the Izbornik of 1073 - an Old Russian manuscript dating back to the collection of the Bulgarian Tsar Simeon (893-927), translated from Greek, the article "from the apostolic charter" states that the standard of historical and narrative works is the Book of Kings, an example in the genre of church hymns is the Psalter , exemplary “cunning and creative” works (that is, related to the writing of the wise and poetic) are the teaching Books of Job and the Proverbs of Solomon. Almost four centuries later, around 1453, the Tver monk Thomas called in his “Laudatory Word about Grand Duke Boris Alexandrovich” an example of historical and narrative works of the Book of Kings, an epistolary genre - apostolic epistles, and “soul-saving books” - lives.

Such ideas, which came to Rus' from Byzantium, were widespread throughout medieval Europe. In the preface to the Bible, Francis Skorina referred those who wanted “knowledge about military” and “heroic deeds” to the Books of Judges, noting that they are more truthful and useful than “Alexandria” and “Troy” - medieval novels with adventure stories about Alexander Macedonian and Trojan Wars, known in Rus' (see § 5.3 and § 6.3). By the way, the canon says the same thing in M. Cervantes, convincing Don Quixote to leave his extravagances and come to his senses: “If... you are drawn to books about exploits and knightly deeds, then open the Holy Scriptures and read the Book of Judges: here you are you will find great and genuine events and deeds as true as they are courageous" (part 1, 1605).

The hierarchy of church books, as it was understood in Ancient Rus', is set out in the preface of Metropolitan Macarius to the Great Menaions Chetiy (finished ca. 1554). The monuments that formed the core of traditional book literature are located in strict accordance with their place on the hierarchical ladder. Its upper levels are occupied by the most revered biblical books with theological interpretations. At the top of the book hierarchy is the Gospel, followed by the Apostle and the Psalter (which in Ancient Rus' was also used as an educational book - they learned to read from it). Next follow the works of the church fathers: collections of works by John Chrysostom “Zlatostruy”, “Margarit”, “Zlatostom”, works of Basil the Great, words of Gregory the Theologian with interpretations of Metropolitan Nikita of Irakli, “Pandects” and “Tactikon” by Nikon Chernogorets etc. The next level is oratorical prose with its own genre subsystem: 1) prophetic words, 2) apostolic, 3) patristic, 4) festive, 5) laudable. At the last stage there is hagiographic literature with a special genre hierarchy: 1) lives of martyrdom, 2) saints, 3) patericon Alphabet, Jerusalem, Egyptian, Sinai, Skete, Kiev-Pechersk, 4) lives of Russian saints canonized by the councils of 1547 and 1549

The Old Russian genre system, having developed under the influence of the Byzantine one, was rebuilt and developed over the course of seven centuries of its existence. Nevertheless, it was preserved in its main features until the New Age.

§ 1.5. Literary language of Ancient Rus'. Together with Old Slavonic books to Rus' at the end of the 10th-11th centuries. The Old Church Slavonic language was transferred - the first common Slavic literary language, supranational and international, created on the Bulgarian-Macedonian dialect basis in the process of translations of church books (mainly Greek) by Constantine the Philosopher, Methodius and their students in the second half of the 9th century. in Western and South Slavic lands. From the first years of its existence in Rus', the Old Church Slavonic language began to adapt to the living speech of the Eastern Slavs. Under its influence, some specific South Slavicisms were supplanted by Russianisms from the book norm, while others became acceptable options within its limits. As a result of the adaptation of the Old Church Slavonic language to the peculiarities of Old Russian speech, a local (Old Russian) version of the Church Slavonic language was formed. Its formation was close to completion in the second half of the 11th century, as shown by the oldest East Slavic written monuments: the Ostromir Gospel (1056-57), the Arkhangelsk Gospel (1092), the Novgorod service Menaions (1095-96, 1096, 1097) and other contemporary manuscripts.

The linguistic situation of Kievan Rus is assessed differently in the works of researchers. Some of them recognize the existence of bilingualism, in which the spoken language was Old Russian, and the literary language was Church Slavonic (Old Church Slavonic in origin), which was only gradually Russified (A. A. Shakhmatov). Opponents of this hypothesis prove the originality of the literary language in Kievan Rus, the strength and depth of its folk East Slavic speech basis and, accordingly, the weakness and superficiality of the Old Slavic influence (S. P. Obnorsky). There is a compromise concept of two types of a single Old Russian literary language: book-Slavic and folk-literary, which interacted widely and diversified with each other in the process of historical development (V.V. Vinogradov). According to the theory of literary bilingualism, in Ancient Rus' there were two book languages: Church Slavonic and Old Russian (F. I. Buslaev was close to this point of view, and then it was developed by L. P. Yakubinsky and D. S. Likhachev).

In the last decades of the 20th century. The theory of diglossia became very famous (G. Hütl-Folter, A. V. Isachenko, B. A. Uspensky). In contrast to bilingualism, in diglossia the functional spheres of bookish (Church Slavonic) and non-bookish (Old Russian) languages ​​are strictly distributed, almost do not overlap and require speakers to evaluate their idioms on a scale of “high - low”, “solemn - ordinary”, “ecclesiastical - secular”. . Church Slavonic, for example, being a literary and liturgical language, could not serve as a means of spoken communication, but for Old Russian this was one of the main functions. Under diglossia, Church Slavonic and Old Russian were perceived in Ancient Rus' as two functional varieties of one language. There are other views on the origin of the Russian literary language, but they are all debatable. It is obvious that the Old Russian literary language was formed from the very beginning as a language of complex composition (B. A. Larin, V. V. Vinogradov) and organically included Church Slavonic and Old Russian elements.

Already in the 11th century. Different written traditions developed and a business language appeared, ancient Russian in origin. It was a special written, but not literary, not actually bookish language. Official documents (letters, petitions, etc.), legal codes (for example, “Russkaya Pravda”, see § 2.8) were drawn up on it, and administrative office work was carried out in the 16th - 17th centuries. Texts with everyday content were also written in Old Russian: birch bark letters (see § 2.8), graffiti inscriptions drawn with a sharp object on the plaster of ancient buildings, mainly churches, etc. At first, the business language had little interaction with the literary one. However, over time, the once clear boundaries between them began to collapse. The rapprochement of literature and business writing took place mutually and was clearly manifested in a number of works of the 15th-17th centuries: “Domostroye”, the messages of Ivan the Terrible, the work of Grigory Kotoshikhin “On Russia during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich”, “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich”, “Kalyazinskaya” petition" and others.

§ 2. Literature of Kievan Rus
(XI - first third of the XII century)

§ 2.1. The oldest book of Rus' and the first written monuments. The “book teaching” started by Vladimir Svyatoslavich quickly achieved significant success. The oldest surviving book of Rus' is the Novgorod Codex (no later than the 1st quarter of the 11th century) - a triptych of three waxed tablets, found in 2000 during the work of the Novgorod archaeological expedition. In addition to the main text - two psalms, the codex contains "hidden" texts, scratched on wood or preserved in the form of faint imprints on tablets under wax. Among the “hidden” texts read by A. A. Zaliznyak, especially interesting is a previously unknown composition of four separate articles about the gradual movement of people from the darkness of paganism through the limited benefit of the Law of Moses to the light of the teachings of Christ (tetralogy “From Paganism to Christ”).

In 1056-57 The oldest surviving precisely dated Slavic manuscript was created - the Ostromir Gospel with an afterword by the book writer Deacon Gregory. Gregory, together with his assistants, rewrote and decorated the book in eight months for the Novgorod mayor Ostromir (baptized Joseph), which is where the name of the Gospel comes from. The manuscript is luxuriously decorated, written in large calligraphy in two columns and is a wonderful example of book-writing art. Among the other oldest accurately dated manuscripts, one should mention the philosophical and didactic Izbornik of 1073, copied in Kiev - a richly decorated tome containing more than 380 articles by 25 authors (including the essay “On Images”, on rhetorical figures and tropes, by the Byzantine grammarian George Hirovosk, ca. 750-825), a small and modest Izbornik of 1076, rewritten in Kiev by the scribe John and, perhaps, compiled mainly from articles of religious and moral content, the Archangel Gospel of 1092, rewritten in the south of Kievan Rus, as well as three Novgorod list of service Menaions: for September - 1095-96, for October - 1096 and for November - 1097.

These seven manuscripts exhaust the surviving ancient Russian books of the 11th century, which indicate the time of their creation. The rest of the Old Russian manuscripts of the 11th century. either do not have exact dates, or were preserved in later lists. Thus, it has reached our time in lists no earlier than the 15th century. a book of 16 Old Testament prophets with interpretations, rewritten in 1047 by a Novgorod priest who had the “worldly” name of the Dashing Ghoul. (In Ancient Rus', the custom of giving two names, Christian and “secular,” was widespread not only in the world, cf. the name of the mayor Joseph-Ostromir, but also among the clergy and monasticism.)

§ 2.2. Yaroslav the Wise and a new stage in the development of ancient Russian literature. The educational activities of Vladimir Svyatoslavich were continued by his son Yaroslav the Wise († 1054), who finally established himself on the Kiev throne in 1019 after the victory over Svyatopolk (see § 2.5). The reign of Yaroslav the Wise was marked by foreign policy and military successes, the establishment of broad ties with the countries of Western Europe (including dynastic ones), a rapid rise in culture and extensive construction in Kiev, which transferred to the Dnieper, at least in name, the main shrines of Constantinople (St. Sophia Cathedral, Golden Gate and etc.).

Under Yaroslav the Wise, “Russkaya Pravda” arose (see § 2.8), chronicles were written and, according to A. A. Shakhmatov, around 1039, at the metropolitan see in Kyiv, the Most Ancient Chronicle Code was compiled. In the Kyiv metropolis, administratively subordinate to the Patriarch of Constantinople, Yaroslav the Wise sought to promote his people to the highest church positions. With his support, the first Old Russian hierarchs from among the local clergy were Luka Zhidyata, Bishop of Novgorod from 1036 (see § 2.8), and Hilarion, Metropolitan of Kiev from 1051 (from the priests in the village of Berestov - the country palace of Yaroslav near Kiev). During the entire pre-Mongol period, only two metropolitans of Kyiv, Hilarion (1051-54) and Clement Smolyatich (see § 3.1), came from among the local clergy, were elected and installed in Rus' by a council of bishops without relations with the Patriarch of Constantinople. All other metropolitans of Kyiv were Greeks, elected and consecrated by the patriarch in Constantinople.

Hilarion owns one of the most profound works of the Slavic Middle Ages - “The Sermon on Law and Grace,” spoken by him between 1037 and 1050. Among Hilarion’s listeners there could well have been people who remembered Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich and the baptism of the Russian land. However, the writer did not appeal to the ignorant and simpletons, but to people experienced in theology and book wisdom. Using the Epistle of the Apostle Paul to the Galatians (4: 21-31), he proves with dogmatic impeccability the superiority of Christianity over Judaism, the New Testament - Grace, bringing salvation to the whole world and establishing the equality of peoples before God, over the Old Testament - the Law given to one people. The triumph of the Christian faith in Rus' has global significance in the eyes of Hilarion. It glorifies the Russian land, a full-fledged power in the family of Christian states, and its princes - Vladimir and Yaroslav. Hilarion was an outstanding orator; he knew very well the techniques and rules of Byzantine preaching. "The Sermon on Law and Grace" is not inferior in rhetorical and theological merits to the best examples of Greek and Latin church eloquence. It became known outside of Rus' and influenced the work of the Serbian hagiographer Domentian (13th century).

According to the Tale of Bygone Years, Yaroslav the Wise organized large-scale translation and book-writing works in Kyiv. In pre-Mongol Rus' there were various translation schools and centers. The vast majority of texts were translated from Greek. In the XI-XII centuries. remarkable examples of ancient Russian translation art appear. Over the centuries, they have enjoyed constant success among readers and influenced ancient Russian literature, folklore, and fine art.

The Northern Russian translation of “The Life of Andrei the Holy Fool” (XI century or no later than the beginning of the 12th century) had a noticeable influence on the development of ideas of holy foolishness in Ancient Rus' (see also § 3.1). An outstanding book of world medieval literature, “The Tale of Varlaam and Joasaph” (no later than the first half of the 12th century, possibly Kiev), vividly and figuratively told the ancient Russian reader about the Indian prince Joasaph, who, under the influence of the hermit Varlaam, renounced the throne and worldly joys and became an ascetic hermit. "The Life of Basil the New" (XI - XII centuries) struck the imagination of medieval people with impressive pictures of hellish torment, paradise and the Last Judgment, as did those Western European legends (for example, "The Vision of Tnugdal", mid-XII century), which subsequently fed " Divine Comedy by Dante.

No later than the beginning of the 12th century. in Rus' was translated from Greek and supplemented with new articles Prolog, which dates back to the Byzantine Synaxarion (Greek ukhnbosypn) - a collection of brief information about the lives of saints and church holidays. (According to M. N. Speransky, the translation was carried out on Athos or in Constantinople by the joint works of Old Russian and South Slavic scribes.) The prologue contains, in abridged editions, lives, words for Christian holidays and other church teaching texts, arranged in the order of the church calendar, starting with first day of September. In Rus', the Prologue was one of the favorite books; it was repeatedly edited, revised, and supplemented with Russian and Slavic articles.

Historical works received special attention. No later than the 12th century, apparently, in the south-west of Rus', in the Principality of Galicia, the famous monument of ancient historiography - “The History of the Jewish War” by Josephus, a fascinating and dramatic story about the uprising in Judea in 67-73, was translated in a free manner. against Rome. According to V.M. Istrin, in the 11th century. In Kyiv, the Byzantine world Chronicle of the monk George Amartol was translated. However, it is also assumed that this is a Bulgarian translation or a translation made by a Bulgarian in Rus'. Due to the lack of originals and the linguistic proximity of Old Russian and South Slavic texts, their localization is often hypothetical and gives rise to scientific disputes. It is not always possible to say which Russianisms in a text should be attributed to the East Slavic author or translator and which to later copyists.

In the 11th century Based on the translated Greek chronicles of George Amartol, the Syrian John Malala (Bulgarian translation, probably from the 10th century) and other sources, the “Chronograph according to the Great Exposition” was compiled. The monument covered the era from biblical times to the history of Byzantium in the 10th century. and was reflected already in the Initial Chronicle around 1095 (see § 2.3). The "Chronograph according to the Great Exposition" has not survived, but it existed in the first half of the 15th century, when it was used in the Second Edition of the Chronicler of Hellenism and Rome - the largest ancient Russian compilation chronographic code containing an account of world history from the creation of the world.

On Old Russian translations of the 11th-12th centuries. usually include "Devgenie's Act" and "The Tale of Akira the Wise". Both works have reached our time in late copies of the 15th-18th centuries. and occupy a special place in ancient Russian literature. “The Deed of Devgenie” is a translation of the Byzantine heroic epic, which over time was revised in Rus' under the influence of military stories and heroic epics. The Assyrian “Tale of Akira the Wise” is an example of entertaining, edifying and semi-fairy-tale short stories, so beloved in the ancient literatures of the Middle East. Its oldest edition is preserved in fragments in an Aramaic papyrus from the late 5th century. BC e. from Egypt. It is believed that “The Tale of Akira the Wise” was translated into Rus' from the Syriac or the Armenian original dating back to it.

The love for didactic sententiousness, characteristic of the Middle Ages, led to the translation of “The Bee” (no later than the 12th-13th centuries) - a popular Byzantine collection of moralizing aphorisms from ancient, biblical and Christian authors. "The Bee" not only contained ethical instructions, but also significantly expanded the historical and cultural horizons of the ancient Russian reader.

Translation work was apparently carried out at the metropolitan see in Kyiv. Translations of dogmatic, church teaching, epistolary and anti-Latin works by Metropolitans of Kyiv John II (1077-89) and Nicephorus (1104-21), Greeks by origin, who wrote in their native language, have been preserved. Nikifor's message to Vladimir Monomakh "about fasting and abstinence of feelings" is marked by high literary merits and professional translation techniques. In the first half of the 12th century. Theodosius the Greek handled the translations. By order of the monastic prince Nicholas (Svyatosha), he translated the message of Pope Leo I the Great to Patriarch Flavian of Constantinople about the heresy of Eutyches. The Greek original of the message was received from Rome.

Not yet extinguished after the church schism of 1054, ties with Rome owe the origin of one of the main holidays of the Russian Church (not recognized by Byzantium and the Orthodox southern Slavs) - the transfer of the relics of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker from Myra Lycian in Asia Minor to the Italian city of Bari in 1087 (9 May). Established in Rus' at the end of the 11th century, it contributed to the development of a cycle of translated and original works in honor of Nicholas of Myra, which includes “A word of praise on the transfer of the relics of Nicholas the Wonderworker,” stories about the miracles of the saint, preserved in copies of the 12th century, etc.

§ 2.3. Kiev-Pechersk monastery and ancient Russian chronicles. The most important literary and translation center of pre-Mongol Rus' was the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, which educated a bright galaxy of original writers, preachers and church leaders. Quite early, in the second half of the 11th century, the monastery established book connections with Athos and Constantinople. Under the Grand Duke of Kiev Vladimir Svyatoslavich (978-1015), Anthony († 1072-73), the founder of Russian monastic life, one of the founders of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, took monastic vows on Mount Athos. His disciple Theodosius of Pechersk became the “father of Russian monasticism.” During his abbess at the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery (1062-74), the number of brethren reached a figure unprecedented in Rus' - 100 people. Theodosius was not only a spiritual writer (the author of church teaching and anti-Latin works), but also an organizer of translation works. On his initiative, the community charter of the Studite Monastery of John the Baptist in Constantinople, sent to Rus' by Anthony's tonsured monk Ephraim, who lived in one of the Constantinople monasteries, was translated. Adopted in the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, the Studite Charter was then introduced in all ancient Russian monasteries.

From the last third of the 11th century. The Kiev-Pechersk Monastery becomes the center of ancient Russian chronicles. The history of early chronicle writing is brilliantly reconstructed in the works of A. A. Shakhmatov, although not all researchers share certain provisions of his concept. In 1073, in the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, on the basis of the Most Ancient Code (see § 2.2), the code of Nikon the Great, an associate of Anthony and Theodosius of the Pechersk, was compiled. Nikon was the first to give historical records the form of weather articles. Unknown to Byzantine chronicles, it was firmly established in ancient Russian chronicles. His work formed the basis of the Initial Code that appeared under the Pechersk abbot John (c. 1095) - the first all-Russian chronicle monument in nature.

During the second decade of the 12th century. one after another, editions of a new chronicle collection - "The Tale of Bygone Years" - appeared. All of them were compiled by scribes who reflected the interests of one or another prince. The first edition was created by the Kiev-Pechersk monk Nestor, chronicler of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Svyatopolk Izyaslavich (according to A. A. Shakhmatov - 1110-12, according to M. D. Priselkov - 1113). Nestor took the Primary Code as the basis for his work, supplementing it with numerous written sources and folk legends. After the death of Svyatopolk Izyaslavich in 1113, his political opponent Vladimir Monomakh ascended the Kiev throne. The new Grand Duke transferred the chronicle to his family's St. Michael's Vydubitsky Monastery near Kiev. There, in 1116, Abbot Sylvester created the Second Edition of the Tale of Bygone Years, positively assessing the activities of Monomakh in the fight against Svyatopolk. The third edition of the "Tale of Bygone Years" was compiled in 1118 on behalf of Vladimir Monomakh's eldest son Mstislav.

"The Tale of Bygone Years" is a most valuable monument of ancient Russian historical thought, literature and language, a complex collection of composition and sources. The structure of the chronicle text is heterogeneous. "The Tale of Bygone Years" includes epic legends (about the death of Prince Oleg the Prophet from the bite of a snake that crawled out of the skull of his beloved horse, under 912, about Princess Olga's revenge on the Drevlyans under 945-46), folk tales ( about the elder who saved Belgorod from the Pechenegs, under 997), toponymic legends (about the Kozhemyak youth who defeated the Pecheneg hero, under 992), testimonies of contemporaries (voivode Vyshata and his son, voivode Yan), peace treaties with Byzantium 911 , 944 and 971, church teachings (a speech by a Greek philosopher in 986), hagiographic stories (about the murder of princes Boris and Gleb in 1015), military stories, etc. The heterogeneity of the chronicle determined the special, hybrid nature of its language : complex interpenetration of Church Slavonic and Russian linguistic elements in the text, a mixture of book and non-book elements. "The Tale of Bygone Years" became an unsurpassed role model for centuries and formed the basis for further ancient Russian chronicles.

§ 2.4. Literary monuments in the "Tale of Bygone Years". The chronicle includes “The Tale of the Blinding of Prince Vasilko of Terebovl” (1110s), which arose as an independent work about princely crimes. Its author, Vasily, was an eyewitness and participant in the dramatic events, and knew very well all the events of the internecine wars of 1097-1100. The entire scene of the reception of Vasilko by princes Svyatopolk Izyaslavich and David Igorevich, his arrest and blinding, the subsequent torment of the blinded man (the episode with the bloody shirt washed by the priest) are written with deep psychologism, great specific accuracy and exciting drama. In this respect, Vasily’s work anticipates “The Tale of the Murder of Andrei Bogolyubsky” with its vivid psychological and realistic sketches (see § 3.1).

A selection of works by Vladimir Monomakh († 1125) was organically included in the “Tale of Bygone Years” - the fruit of many years of life and deep reflections of the wisest of the princes of the appanage period. Known under the name "Instruction", it consists of three works from different periods: instructions for children, an autobiography - a chronicle of Monomakh's military and hunting exploits, and a letter from 1096 to his political rival, Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich of Chernigov. In "Instruction" the author summarized his life principles and the princely code of honor. The ideal of the "Instruction" is a wise, fair and merciful sovereign, sacredly maintaining fidelity to contracts and the kiss of the cross, a brave prince-warrior, sharing labor in everything with his squad, and a pious Christian. The combination of teaching and autobiographical elements finds a direct parallel in the apocryphal "Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs", known in medieval Byzantine, Latin and Slavic literature. The "Testament of Judas on Courage" included in the apocrypha had a direct influence on Monomakh.

His work stands on a par with medieval Western European teachings to children - heirs to the throne. The most famous among them are the “Testament”, attributed to the Byzantine Emperor Basil I of Macedon, the Anglo-Saxon “Teachings” of King Alfred the Great and the “Teachings of the Fathers” (8th century), used for the education of royal children. It cannot be argued that Monomakh was familiar with these works. However, one cannot help but remember that his mother came from the family of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh, and his wife was Gida († 1098/9), daughter of the last Anglo-Saxon king Harald, who died at the Battle of Hastings in 1066.

§ 2.5. Development of hagiographic genres. One of the first works of ancient Russian hagiography is “The Life of Anthony of Pechersk” (§ 2.3). Although it has not survived to this day, it can be argued that it was an outstanding work of its kind. The Life contained valuable historical and legendary information about the emergence of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, influenced chronicle writing, served as a source for the Initial Code, and was later used in the “Kievo-Pechersk Patericon”.

The features of the life and historical words of praise are combined in one of the most ancient monuments of our literature - the rhetorically decorated “Memory and Praise to the Russian Prince Vladimir” (11th century) by the monk Jacob. The work is dedicated to the solemn glorification of the Baptist of Rus', proof of his chosenness by God. Jacob had access to the ancient chronicle that preceded the Tale of Bygone Years and the Primary Code, and used its unique information, which more accurately conveyed the chronology of events during the time of Vladimir Svyatoslavich.

The lives of the Kiev-Pechersk monk Nestor (not earlier than 1057 - early 12th century), created according to the models of Byzantine hagiography, are distinguished by their outstanding literary merits. His "Reading on the Life of Boris and Gleb" along with other monuments of the 11th-12th centuries. (the more dramatic and emotional “The Tale of Boris and Gleb” and its continuation “The Tale of the Miracles of Roman and David”) form a widespread cycle about the bloody internecine war of the sons of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich for the Kiev throne. Boris and Gleb (baptized Roman and David) are depicted as martyrs not so much of a religious as of a political idea. Having preferred death in 1015 to the struggle against their elder brother Svyatopolk, who seized power in Kyiv after the death of their father, they affirm with all their behavior and death the triumph of brotherly love and the need for the subordination of the younger princes to the eldest in the clan in order to preserve the unity of the Russian land. The passion-bearing princes Boris and Gleb, the first canonized saints in Rus', became its heavenly patrons and defenders.

After the “Reading,” Nestor created, based on the memories of his contemporaries, a detailed biography of Theodosius of Pechersk, which became a model in the genre of the life of the monk. The work contains precious information about monastic life and customs, about the attitude of ordinary laymen, boyars and the Grand Duke towards monks. Later, “The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk” was included in the “Kievo-Pechersk Patericon” - the last major work of pre-Mongol Rus'.

In Byzantine literature, paterikas (cf. Greek rbfesykn, ancient Russian otchnik 'otechnik, paterik') were collections of edifying short stories about ascetics of monastic and hermit life (of some area famous for monasticism), as well as collections of their moralizing and ascetic sayings and short words . The golden fund of medieval Western European literature included the Skitsky, Sinai, Egyptian, and Roman patericons, known in translations from Greek in ancient Slavic writing. Created in imitation of the translated "fatherland", the "Kievo-Pechersk Patericon" worthily continues this series.

Back in the XI - XII centuries. In the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, legends were written down about its history and the ascetics of piety who labored there, reflected in the “Tale of Bygone Years” under 1051 and 1074. In the 20s-30s. XIII century The “Kievo-Pechersk Patericon” begins to take shape - a collection of short stories about the history of this monastery, its monks, their ascetic life and spiritual exploits. The monument is based on the messages and accompanying patericon stories of two Kiev-Pechersk monks: Simon († 1226), who became the first bishop of Vladimir and Suzdal in 1214, and Polycarp († 1st half of the 13th century). The sources of their stories about the events of the 11th - first half of the 12th century. Monastic and family traditions, folk tales, the Kiev-Pechersk chronicle, and the lives of Anthony and Theodosius of the Pechersk appeared. The formation of the patericon genre took place at the intersection of oral and written traditions: folklore, hagiography, chronicle writing, and oratorical prose.

"Kievo-Pechersk Patericon" is one of the most beloved books of Orthodox Rus'. For centuries it was eagerly read and copied. 300 years, before the appearance of the Volokolamsk Patericon in the 30s-40s. XVI century (see § 6.5), it remained the only original monument of this genre in ancient Russian literature.

§ 2.6. The emergence of the "walking" genre. At the beginning of the 12th century. (in 1104-07), the abbot of one of the Chernigov monasteries, Daniel, made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and stayed there for a year and a half. Daniel's mission had a political background. He arrived in the Holy Land after the conquest of Jerusalem by the Crusaders in 1099 and the formation of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. Daniel was twice granted an audience with the King of Jerusalem by Baldwin (Baudouin) I (1100-18), one of the leaders of the First Crusade, who more than once showed him other exceptional signs of attention. In "Walk" Daniel appears before us as a messenger of the entire Russian land as a kind of political whole.

"The Walk" of Daniel is an example of pilgrimage notes, a valuable source of historical information about Palestine and Jerusalem. In form and content, it resembles numerous medieval itinerariums (Latin itinerarium ‘description of a journey’) of Western European pilgrims. He described in detail the route, the sights he saw, retold traditions and legends about the shrines of Palestine and Jerusalem, sometimes not distinguishing church canonical stories from apocryphal ones. Daniel is the largest representative of pilgrimage literature not only of Ancient Rus', but also of all medieval Europe.

§ 2.7. Apocrypha. As in medieval Europe, in Rus' already in the 11th century, in addition to orthodox literature, the apocrypha (Greek: ркхх f т 'secret, hidden') - semi-bookish, semi-folk tales on religious topics not included in the church canon (in history, the meaning of the concept apocrypha has changed). Their main flow came to Rus' from Bulgaria, where in the 10th century. The dualistic heresy of the Bogomils was strong, preaching the equal participation of God and the devil in the creation of the world, their eternal struggle in world history and human life.

The Apocrypha form a kind of common people's Bible and are mostly divided into Old Testament ("The Tale of How God Created Adam", "Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs", Apocrypha about Solomon, in which demonological motifs predominate, "The Book of Enoch the Righteous"), New Testament ("Gospel of Thomas ", "The First Gospel of Jacob", "The Gospel of Nicodemus", "The Tale of Aphroditian"), eschatological - about the afterlife and the final destinies of the world ("The Vision of the Prophet Isaiah", "The Virgin's Walk in Torment", "The Revelation" of Methodius of Patara, used already in "Tales of Bygone Years" under 1096).

Apocryphal lives, torments, words, messages, conversations, etc. are known. The “Conversation of the Three Hierarchs” (Basily the Great, Gregory the Theologian and John Chrysostom), preserved in ancient Russian copies from the 12th century, enjoyed great love among the people. Written in the form of questions and answers on a wide variety of topics: from biblical to "natural science", it reveals, on the one hand, clear points of contact with medieval Greek and Latin literature (for example, Joca monachorum 'Monastic games'), and on the other - has experienced, throughout its handwritten history, the strong influence of folk superstitions, pagan ideas, and riddles. Many apocrypha are included in the dogmatic-polemical compilation "Explanatory Palea" (possibly from the 13th century) and in its revision "Chronographic Palea".

In the Middle Ages, there were special lists (indexes) of books renounced, that is, books prohibited by the Church. The oldest Slavic index, translated from Greek, is in the Izbornik of 1073. Independent lists of renounced books, reflecting the real reading range in Ancient Rus', appear at the turn of the 14th-15th centuries. and have a recommendatory, rather than strictly prohibitive (with subsequent punitive sanctions) nature. Many apocrypha ("Gospel of Thomas", "First Gospel of James", "Gospel of Nicodemus", "Tale of Aphroditian", significantly supplementing the information of the New Testament about the earthly life of Jesus Christ) could not be perceived as "false writings" and were revered on a par with church canonical works . The Apocrypha left noticeable traces in the literature and art of all medieval Europe (in church painting, architectural decoration, book ornament, etc.).

§ 2.8. Literature and writing of Veliky Novgorod. Even in ancient times, literary life was not concentrated in Kyiv alone. In the north of Rus', the largest cultural center and trade and craft center was Veliky Novgorod, which early, already at the beginning of the 11th century, showed tendencies towards isolation from Kyiv and achieved political independence in 1136.

In the middle of the 11th century. In Novgorod, chronicles were already being written at the Church of St. Sophia. The Novgorod chronicles are generally distinguished by their brevity, business-like tone, simple language, and the absence of rhetorical embellishments and colorful descriptions. They are intended for the Novgorod reader, and not for all-Russian distribution, they tell about local history, rarely touch upon the events of other lands, and then mainly in their relation to Novgorod. One of the first ancient Russian writers known to us by name was Luka Zhidyata († 1059-60), Bishop of Novgorod from 1036 (The nickname is a diminutive formation from the secular name Zhidoslav or the church name George: Gyurgiy> Gyurata> Zhidyata.) His “Teaching to the Brethren” "on the foundations of Christian faith and piety represents a completely different type of rhetorical strategy compared to Hilarion's "Sermon on Law and Grace." It is devoid of oratorical tricks, written in accessible language, simply and briefly.

In 1015, an uprising broke out in Novgorod, caused by the shameless management of the princely squad, which largely consisted of Varangian mercenaries. To prevent such clashes, by order of Yaroslav the Wise and with his participation, in 1016 the first written law book in Rus' was compiled - “The Most Ancient Truth”, or “The Truth of Yaroslav”. This is a fundamental document in the history of ancient Russian law in the 11th - early 12th centuries. In the first half of the 11th century. it was included in the Brief Edition of "Russian Truth" - the legislation of Yaroslav the Wise and his sons. The "Brief Truth" has come down to us in two lists from the mid-15th century. in the Novgorod first chronicle of the younger edition. In the first third of the 12th century. The "Brief Pravda" was replaced by a new legislative code - the Long Edition of the "Russian Pravda". This is an independent monument, which includes various legal documents, including the “Brief Truth”. The oldest list of the "Long-Range Pravda" was preserved in the Novgorod helmsman of 1280. The emergence at the very beginning of our writing of an exemplary legislative code written in Old Russian was of exceptionally great importance for the development of business language.

The most important sources of everyday writing of the 11th-15th centuries. are birch bark letters. Their cultural and historical significance is extremely great. Texts on birch bark made it possible to put an end to the myth of almost universal illiteracy in Ancient Rus'. Birch bark letters were first discovered in 1951 during archaeological excavations in Novgorod. Then they were found in Staraya Russa, Pskov, Smolensk, Tver, Torzhok, Moscow, Vitebsk, Mstislavl, Zvenigorod Galitsky (near Lvov). Currently, their collection includes over a thousand documents. The vast majority of sources come from Novgorod and its lands.

Unlike expensive parchment, birch bark was the most democratic and easily accessible writing material. On soft birch bark, letters were squeezed out or scratched with a sharp metal or bone rod, which was called a scribble. Only in rare cases was pen and ink used. The oldest birch bark documents discovered today date back to the first half - mid-11th century. The social composition of the authors and recipients of birch bark letters is very wide. Among them are not only representatives of the titled nobility, clergy and monasticism, which is understandable in itself, but also merchants, elders, housekeepers, warriors, artisans, peasants, etc., which indicates the widespread spread of literacy in Rus' already in the 11th-12th centuries. Women took part in the correspondence on birch bark. Sometimes they are the recipients or authors of messages. Several letters sent from woman to woman have survived. Almost all birch bark letters are written in Old Russian, and only a few are written in Church Slavonic.

Birch bark letters are mostly private letters. The daily life and concerns of a medieval person are presented in them in great detail. The authors of the messages talk about their affairs: family, economic, trade, money, litigation, travel, military campaigns, expeditions for tribute, etc. Documents of business content are not uncommon: bills, receipts, records of debt obligations, ownership labels, wills, bills of sale , petitions from peasants to the feudal lord, etc. Educational texts are interesting: exercises, alphabet books, lists of numbers, lists of syllables by which they learned to read. Conspiracies, a riddle, and a school joke have also been preserved. All this everyday side of the medieval way of life, all these little things of life, so obvious to contemporaries and constantly eluding researchers, are poorly reflected in the literature of the 11th-15th centuries.

Occasionally, birch bark letters of church and literary content are found: excerpts of liturgical texts, prayers and teachings, for example, two quotes from the “Sermon on Wisdom” by Cyril of Turov (see § 3.1) in the birch bark list of the first 20th anniversary of the 13th century. from Torzhok.

§ 3. Decentralization of Old Russian literature
(second third of the 12th - first quarter of the 13th century)

§ 3.1. Old and new literary centers. After the death of Vladimir Monomakh's son Mstislav the Great († 1132), Kyiv lost power over most of the Russian lands. Kievan Rus broke up into one and a half dozen sovereign and semi-sovereign states. Feudal fragmentation was accompanied by cultural decentralization. Although the largest ecclesiastical, political and cultural centers still remained Kyiv and Novgorod, literary life awakened and developed in other lands: Vladimir, Smolensk, Turov, Polotsk, etc.

A prominent representative of Byzantine influence in the pre-Mongol period is Clement Smolyatich, the second Metropolitan of Kiev after Hilarion (1147-55, with short interruptions), elected and installed in Rus' from local natives. (His nickname comes from the name Smolyat and does not indicate origin from the Smolensk land.) Clement’s polemical letter to the Smolensk presbyter Thomas (mid-12th century) discusses Homer, Aristotle, Plato, the interpretation of Holy Scripture with the help of parables and allegories, and the search for spiritual meaning in objects of material nature, as well as schedography - the highest literacy course in Greek education, which consisted of grammatical analysis and memorization of exercises (words, forms, etc.) for each letter of the alphabet.

The solemn word of thanks to the Grand Duke of Kyiv Rurik Rostislavich, written by Moses, abbot of the St. Michael's Vydubitsky Monastery near Kiev, on the occasion of the completion of construction work in 1199 on the construction of a wall strengthening the bank under the ancient St. Michael's Cathedral, is distinguished by its skillful rhetorical technique. It is believed that Moses was the chronicler of Rurik Rostislavich and the compiler of the Kyiv grand ducal code of 1200, preserved in the Ipatiev Chronicle.

One of the most learned scribes was the hierodeacon and domestic (church regent) of the Anthony Monastery in Novgorod, Kirik, the first ancient Russian mathematician. He authored mathematical and chronological works, combined into “The Doctrine of Numbers” (1136) and “Questioning” (mid-12th century) - a complex work in the form of questions to the local Archbishop Nifont, Metropolitan Kliment Smolyatich and other persons concerning various aspects of church-ritual and secular life and discussed among Novgorod parishioners and clergy. It is possible that Kirik participated in the local archbishop's chronicle. At the end of the 1160s. priest German Voyata, having revised the previous chronicle, compiled an archbishop's codex. The early Novgorod chronicles and the Kiev-Pechersk Initial Code were reflected in the Synodal list of the 13th-14th centuries. Novgorod first chronicle.

Before his monastic vows, the Novgorodian Dobrynya Yadreykovich (Archbishop Anthony of Novgorod from 1211) traveled to the holy places in Constantinople before its capture by the Crusaders in 1204. What he saw during the journey was briefly described by him in the “Book of the Pilgrim” - a kind of guide to the Constantinople shrines . The fall of Constantinople in 1204 is dedicated to the testimony of an unknown eyewitness, included in the First Novgorod Chronicle - “The Tale of the Capture of Constantinople by the Fryags.” Written with outward impartiality and objectivity, the story significantly complements the picture of the defeat of Constantinople by the crusaders of the Fourth Campaign, drawn by Latin and Byzantine historians and memoirists.

Bishop Kirill of Turov († c. 1182), the “Zlatoust” of Ancient Rus', was brilliant in the techniques of Byzantine oratory. The sublimity of religious feelings and thoughts, the depth of theological interpretations, expressive language, clarity of comparisons, a subtle sense of nature - all this made the sermons of Cyril of Turov a wonderful monument of ancient Russian eloquence. They can be placed on a par with the best works of contemporary Byzantine preaching. The creations of Cyril of Turov became widespread in Rus' and beyond its borders - among the Orthodox South Slavs, and caused numerous alterations and imitations. In total, more than 30 compositions are attributed to him: a cycle of 8 words for the holidays of the Colored Triodion, a cycle of seven-week prayers, “The Tale of the Beloriztsy and the Minshestvo and the Souls and Repentance,” etc. According to I. P. Eremin, in an allegorical form “ Parables about the human soul and body "(between 1160-69) Kirill of Turov wrote an accusatory pamphlet against Bishop Fyodor of Rostov, who fought, with the support of the appanage prince Andrei Bogolyubsky, son of Yuri Dolgoruky, for the independence of his see from the Kyiv Metropolis.

Under Andrei Bogolyubsky, the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, which before him was one of the youngest and most insignificant destinies, experienced political and cultural flourishing. Having become the most powerful prince in Rus', Andrei Bogolyubsky dreamed of uniting the Russian lands under his power. In the struggle for church independence from Kyiv, he either planned to separate the Suzdal region from the Rostov diocese and establish a second (after Kyiv) metropolis in Vladimir in Rus', then after the refusal of the Patriarch of Constantinople, he tried to achieve autocephaly for the Rostov diocese. He received significant assistance in this struggle from literature glorifying his deeds and local shrines, proving the special patronage of the heavenly powers of North-Eastern Rus'.

Andrei Bogolyubsky was distinguished by his deep veneration of the Mother of God. Having left for Vladimir from Vyshgorod near Kiev, he took with him an ancient icon of the Mother of God (according to legend, painted by the Evangelist Luke), and then ordered a legend to be compiled about her miracles. The work affirms the chosenness of the Vladimir-Suzdal state among other Russian principalities and the primacy of the political importance of its sovereign. The legend marked the beginning of a popular cycle of monuments about one of the most beloved Russian shrines - the icon of the Vladimir Mother of God, which later included “The Tale of Temir Aksak” (beginning of the 15th century; see § 5.2 and § 7.8) and the compilative “The Legend of the Icon of Vladimir” Our Lady" (mid-16th century). In the 1160s under Andrei Bogolyubsky, the feast of the Intercession of the Most Holy Theotokos was established on October 1 in memory of the appearance of the Mother of God to Andrei the Fool and Epiphanius in the Blachernae Church of Constantinople, praying for Christians and covering them with her headdress - the omophorion (see § 2.2). Old Russian works created in honor of this holiday (prologue legend, service, words for the Intercession) explain it as the special intercession and patronage of the Mother of God of the Russian land.

Having defeated the Volga Bulgarians on August 1, 1164, Andrei Bogolyubsky composed a grateful “Word on the Mercy of God” (First edition - 1164) and established a holiday to the All-Merciful Savior and the Most Holy Theotokos. These events are also dedicated to the "Tale of the victory over the Volga Bulgarians in 1164 and the festival of the All-Merciful Savior and the Most Holy Theotokos" (1164-65), celebrated on August 1 in memory of the victories on this day of the Byzantine emperor Manuel Komnenos (1143-80) over the Saracens and Andrei Bogolyubsky over the Volga Bulgarians. The legend reflected the growing military-political power of the Vladimir-Suzdal state and portrayed Manuel Komnenos and Andrei Bogolyubsky as equal in glory and dignity.

After the discovery in Rostov in 1164 of the relics of Bishop Leonty, who preached Christianity in the Rostov land and was killed by pagans around 1076, a short version of his life was written (before 1174). "The Life of Leonty of Rostov", one of the most widespread works of ancient Russian hagiography, glorifies the holy martyr as the heavenly patron of Vladimir Rus'.

The strengthening of princely power led to a clash between Andrei Bogolyubsky and the boyar opposition. The death of the prince in 1174 as a result of a palace conspiracy was vividly captured by the dramatic “Tale of the Murder of Andrei Bogolyubsky” (apparently between 1174-77), combining high literary merits with historically important and accurate details. The author was an eyewitness to the events, which does not exclude the recording of the story from his words (one of the possible authors is the servant of the murdered Prince Kuzmishcha Kiyanin).

The eternal theme of “woe from mind” is also developed by Daniil Zatochnik, one of the most mysterious ancient Russian authors (XII or XIII century). His work has been preserved in several editions in copies of the 16th - 17th centuries, apparently reflecting a late stage in the history of the monument. “The Word” and “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik are, in fact, two independent works created at the intersection of book, primarily biblical, and folklore traditions. In the figurative form of allegories and aphorisms, close to the maxims of “The Bee,” the author sarcastically depicted the life and customs of his time, the tragedy of an extraordinary person who was haunted by need and troubles. Daniil Zatochnik is a supporter of the strong and “formidable” princely power, to which he turns with a request for help and protection. In terms of genre, the work can be compared with Western European “prayers” for pardon, for release from prison, often written in verse in the form of aphorisms and parables (for example, Byzantine monuments of the 12th century “Works of Prodromus, Mr. Theodore”, “Poems of the grammarian Michael Glika” ).

§ 3.2. The swan song of the literature of Kievan Rus: “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” In line with the medieval pan-European literary process is also “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign” (late 12th century), a lyric-epic work associated with the militia milieu and poetry. The reason for its creation was the unsuccessful campaign of Novgorod-Seversk Prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsians in 1185. The military stories that survived in the Laurentian Chronicle (1377) and the Ipatiev Chronicle (late 10s - early 20s of the 15th century) are dedicated to the defeat of Igor. However, only the author of the “Lay” was able to turn a private episode of numerous wars with the Steppe into a great poetic monument, standing on a par with such masterpieces of medieval epic as the French “Song of Roland” (apparently, the end of the 11th or beginning of the 12th century), Spanish "Song of my Sid" (c. 1140), German "Song of the Nibelungs" (c. 1200), "The Knight in the Tiger's Skin" by the Georgian poet Shota Rustaveli (late 12th - early 13th centuries).

The poetic imagery of the "Lay" is closely connected with pagan ideas that were alive in the 12th century. The author managed to combine the rhetorical techniques of church literature with the traditions of druzhina epic poetry, an example of which in his eyes were the works of the poet-singer of the 11th century. Boyana. The political ideals of the "Slovo" are associated with the fading Kievan Rus. Its creator is a staunch opponent of princely “sedition” - civil strife that destroyed the Russian land. "The Word" is imbued with the passionate patriotic pathos of the unity of princes for protection from external enemies. In this regard, he is close to the “Tale of Princes,” directed against the civil strife that tore Rus' apart (possibly in the 12th century).

"The Lay of Igor's Campaign" was discovered by Count A.I. Musin-Pushkin in the early 1790s. and published by him according to the only surviving copy in 1800. (By the way, the “Song of My Sid” has come down to us in a single manuscript, which was extremely faulty and incomplete.) During the Patriotic War of 1812, the collection with the “Word” burned down in the Moscow fire. The artistic perfection of the “Word”, its mysterious fate and death gave rise to doubts about the authenticity of the monument. All attempts to challenge the antiquity of the “Slovo”, to declare it a fake of the 18th century. (French Slavist A. Mazon, Moscow historian A. A. Zimin, American historian E. Keenan, etc.) are scientifically untenable.

§ 4. Literature of the era of the struggle against foreign yoke
(second quarter of the 13th - end of the 14th century)

§ 4.1. The tragic theme of ancient Russian literature. The Mongol-Tatar invasion caused irreparable damage to ancient Russian literature, led to its noticeable reduction and decline, and interrupted book ties with other Slavs for a long time. The first tragic battle with the conquerors on the Kalka River in 1223 is the subject of stories preserved in the First Novgorod, Laurentian and Ipatiev Chronicles. In 1237-40. hordes of nomads led by Genghis Khan's grandson Batu poured into Rus', sowing death and destruction everywhere. The stubborn resistance of Rus', which held “a shield between the two hostile races of the Mongols and Europe” (“Scythians” by A. A. Blok), undermined the military power of the Mongol-Tatar horde, which ravaged, but no longer retained Hungary, Poland and Dalmatia.

The foreign invasion was perceived in Rus' as a sign of the end of the world and God's punishment for the grave sins of the entire people. The former greatness, power and beauty of the country is mourned by the lyrical “Word about the destruction of the Russian land”. The time of Vladimir Monomakh is depicted as the era of the highest glory and prosperity of Rus'. The work vividly conveys the feelings of contemporaries - the idealization of the past and deep sorrow for the bleak present. "The Lay" is a rhetorical fragment (beginning) of a lost work about the Mongol-Tatar invasion (according to the most probable opinion, between 1238-46). The passage has been preserved in two lists, but not in a separate form, but as a kind of prologue to the original edition of “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky.”

The most prominent church preacher of that time was Serapion. In 1274, shortly before his death († 1275), he was installed as Bishop of Vladimir from the archimandrites of the Kiev Caves Monastery. From his work, 5 teachings have been preserved - a vivid monument to a tragic era. In three of them, the author paints a vivid picture of the defeat and disasters that befell Rus', considers them God's punishment for sins, and preaches the path of salvation through popular repentance and moral cleansing. In two other teachings he denounces the belief in witchcraft and gross superstitions. Serapion's works are distinguished by deep sincerity, sincerity of feelings, simplicity and at the same time skillful rhetorical technique. This is not only one of the finest examples of ancient Russian church-educational eloquence, but also a valuable historical source, revealing with particular strength and brightness the life and mood during the “destruction of the Russian land.”

XIII century gave an outstanding monument of southern Russian chronicle writing - the Galicia-Volyn Chronicle, consisting of two independent parts: “The Chronicler of Daniil of Galicia” (before 1260) and the chronicle of the Vladimir-Volyn principality (from 1261 to 1290). The court historiographer of Daniil Galitsky was a man of high book culture and literary skill, an innovator in the field of chronicle writing. For the first time, he compiled not a traditional weather chronicle, but created a coherent and coherent historical story, not constrained by year-by-year records. His work is a vivid biography of the warrior prince Daniil of Galicia, who fought the Mongol-Tatars, Polish and Hungarian feudal lords, and the rebellious Galician boyars. The author used the traditions of druzhina epic poetry, folk legends, and subtly understood the poetry of the steppe, as evidenced by the beautiful Polovtsian legend he retold about the Yevsha grass “wormwood” and Khan Otrok.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion revived the ideals of a wise sovereign, a courageous defender of his native land and the Orthodox faith, ready to sacrifice himself for them. A typical example of a martyr's life (or martyrium) is "The Tale of the Murder in the Horde of Prince Mikhail of Chernigov and his boyar Theodore." In 1246, they were both executed by order of Khan Batu for refusing to bow to pagan idols. A short (Prologue) edition of the monument appeared no later than 1271 in Rostov, where Maria Mikhailovna, the daughter of the murdered prince, and his grandchildren Boris and Gleb ruled. Subsequently, on its basis, more extensive editions of the work arose, the author of one of which was priest Andrei (no later than the end of the 13th century).

The conflict in the oldest monument of Tver hagiography - “The Life of Prince Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tver” (late 1319 - early 1320 or 1322-27) has a clearly expressed political background. In 1318, Mikhail Tverskoy was killed in the Golden Horde with the approval of the Tatars by the people of Prince Yuri Danilovich of Moscow, his rival in the struggle for the great reign of Vladimir. The life portrayed Yuri Danilovich in the most unfavorable light and contained anti-Moscow attacks. In the official literature of the 16th century. it was subject to strong pro-Moscow censorship. Under the martyr's son, Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich, a popular uprising broke out in Tver in 1327 against the khan's baskak, Chol Khan. The response to these events was the “Tale of Shevkal”, which appeared shortly after them, included in the Tver chronicles, and the folk historical song “About Shchelkan Dudentievich”.

The "military-heroic" direction in hagiography is developed by "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky." Its original edition was probably created in the 1280s. in the Vladimir Monastery of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary, where Alexander Nevsky was originally buried. The unknown author, who had an excellent command of various literary techniques, skillfully combined the traditions of military history and hagiography. The bright face of the young hero of the Battle of the Neva in 1240 and the Battle of the Ice in 1242, the winner of the Swedish and German knights, the defender of Rus' from foreign invaders and Orthodoxy from Roman Catholic expansion, a pious Christian became a model for subsequent princely biographies and military stories. The work influenced "The Tale of Dovmont" (2nd quarter of the 14th century). The reign of Dovmont (1266-99), who fled to Rus' from Lithuania due to civil strife and was baptized, became for Pskov a time of prosperity and victories over external enemies, the Lithuanians and Livonian knights. The story is connected with the Pskov chronicle, which began in the 13th century. (see § 5.3).

Two interesting works of the late 13th century are dedicated to princely power. The image of an ideal ruler is presented in the message-instruction of the monk Jacob to his spiritual son, Prince Dmitry Borisovich of Rostov (possibly 1281). The prince's responsibility for the affairs of his administration, the issue of justice and truth are considered in the "Punishment" of the first Bishop of Tver Simeon († 1289) to Prince Konstantin of Polotsk.

Stories about the foreign invasion and the heroic struggle of the Russian people grew over time with legendary details. "The Tale of Nikola Zarazsky", a lyric-epic masterpiece of regional Ryazan literature, is distinguished by its high artistic merits. The work, dedicated to the local shrine - the icon of St. Nicholas of Zaraz, includes the story of its transfer from Korsun to the Ryazan land in 1225 and the story of the devastation of Ryazan by Batu Khan in 1237 with praise to the Ryazan princes. One of the main places in the story of the capture of Ryazan is occupied by the image of the epic knight Evpatiy Kolovrat. Using the example of his valiant deeds and death, it is proven that there are not a shortage of heroes in Rus', the heroism and greatness of the spirit of the Russian people, who were not broken by the enemy and cruelly avenged him for the desecrated land, are glorified. The final form of the monument apparently took shape in 1560, but it should be borne in mind that over the centuries its ancient core could have been and, presumably, was subjected to revision, acquiring factual inaccuracies and anachronisms.

In Smolensk literature of the 13th century. only dull echoes of the Mongol-Tatar invasion are heard, which did not affect Smolensk. The well-read and educated scribe Ephraim calls on God to destroy the Ishmaelites, that is, the Tatars, in the life of his teacher Abraham of Smolensk, a valuable monument of local hagiography (apparently, the 2nd half of the 13th century). For understanding the spiritual life of that time, the clash depicted by Ephraim, Abraham, an ascetic scribe, with an environment that did not accept him, is important. The learning and preaching gift of Abraham, who read the “deep books” (possibly the Apocrypha), became the cause of envy and persecution of him by the local clergy.

What seemed to contemporaries to be a miraculous deliverance of Smolensk from Batu’s troops, who did not besiege or plunder the city, but passed away from it, was understood as a manifestation of divine intercession. Over time, a local legend developed that completely rethought historical facts. In it, the savior of Smolensk is presented as the young man Mercury, an epic hero who, with the help of heavenly forces, defeated countless hordes of enemies. The “Tale of Mercury of Smolensk” (lists from the 16th century) uses a “vagrant” plot about a saint carrying his severed head in his hands (cf. the same legend about the first bishop of Gaul, Dionysius, executed by the pagans).

Such later literary adaptations of oral legends about the Batyevism include the legend about the invisible city of Kitezh, after its destruction by the Mongol-Tatars, hidden by God until the second coming of Christ. The work was preserved in late Old Believer writing (2nd half of the 18th century). Faith in the hidden city of the righteous lived among the Old Believers and other religious seekers from the people back in the 20th century. (see, for example, “At the walls of the invisible city. (Bright Lake)” by M. M. Prishvin, 1909).

§ 4.2. Literature of Veliky Novgorod. In Novgorod, which retained its independence, the archbishop's chronicle writing continued in a relatively calm atmosphere (its most significant literary part belongs to the 13th-century sexton Timothy, whose style of presentation is distinguished by an abundance of edifying digressions, emotionality, and the widespread use of church-book language means), travel notes appeared - " The Wanderer of Stephen of Novgorod, who visited Constantinople in 1348 or 1349, created biographies of local saints. Ancient oral traditions preceded the lives of the two most revered Novgorod saints who lived in the 12th century: Varlaam of Khutyn, founder of the Transfiguration Monastery (Original edition - 13th century), and Archbishop of Novgorod Ilya-John (Main edition - between 1471-78). In the “Life of John of Novgorod” the central place is occupied by the legend created at different times about the victory of the Novgorodians over the united Suzdal troops on November 25, 1170 and about the establishment of the Feast of the Sign of the Mother of God, celebrated on November 27 (it is believed that the 40s-50s of the XIV century), as well as a story about the journey of Archbishop John on a demon to Jerusalem (possibly the 1st half of the 15th century), using a “vagrant” plot about a trait cursed with a cross or the sign of the cross.

To understand the medieval religious worldview, the message of Archbishop Vasily Kalika of Novgorod to Bishop Fyodor the Good of Tver about heaven (possibly 1347) is important. It was written in response to theological disputes in Tver about whether paradise exists only as a special spiritual substance or, in addition to it, in the east of the earth there is a material paradise created for Adam and Eve. The central place among the evidence of Vasily Kalika is occupied by the story of the discovery by Novgorod sailors of an earthly paradise, surrounded by high mountains, and an earthly hell. Typologically, this story is close to Western European medieval tales, for example, about Abbot Brendan, who founded many monasteries in England and sailed to the Paradise Islands. (In turn, the legends about St. Brendan absorbed the ancient Celtic legends about King Bran’s voyage to an otherworldly wonderful land.)

Around the middle of the 14th century. In Novgorod, the first significant heretical movement in Rus' appeared - strigolism, which then spread to Pskov, where in the first quarter of the 15th century. reached its peak. Strigolniki denied the clergy and monasticism, church sacraments and rituals. The “Copying from the Rule of the Saints Apostle and Saints Father... to Strigolniki” is directed against them, among the possible authors of which Bishop Stephen of Perm is named.

§ 5. Revival of Russian literature
(late XIV-XV century)

§ 5.1. "Second South Slavic influence". In the XIV century. Byzantium, and after it Bulgaria and Serbia, experienced a cultural upsurge that affected various areas of spiritual life: literature, book language, iconography, theology in the form of the mystical teachings of hesychast monks, that is, the silent ones (from the Greek ?ukhchYab 'peace, silence, silence '). At this time, the southern Slavs were undergoing a reform of the book language, large-scale translation and editing work was being carried out in book centers on Mount Athos, in Constantinople, and then in the capital of the Second Bulgarian Kingdom of Tarnovo under Patriarch Euthymius (c. 1375-93). The goal of the South Slavic book reform of the 14th century. there was a desire to restore the ancient norms of the common Slavic literary language, dating back to the Cyril and Methodius tradition, in the XII-XI V centuries. more and more isolated according to national versions, to streamline the graphic and spelling system, to bring it closer to Greek spelling.

By the end of the 14th century. The Southern Slavs had a large corpus of church monuments translated from Greek. The translations were caused by the increased needs of cenobitic monasteries and hesychast monks for ascetic and theological literature, rules of monastic life and religious polemics. Basically, works unknown in Slavic literature were translated: Isaac the Syrian, Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, Peter of Damascus, Abba Dorotheus, Simeon the New Theologian, preachers of updated hesychast ideas Gregory the Sinaite and Gregory Palamas, etc. Such old translations as “The Ladder” of John Climacus , were verified with the Greek originals and thoroughly revised. The revival of translation activity was facilitated by church reform - the replacement of the Studite church charter with the Jerusalem one, carried out first in Byzantium, and then, by the middle of the 14th century, in Bulgaria and Serbia. Church reform required the South Slavs to translate new texts, the reading of which was provided for by the Jerusalem Charter during worship. This is how the verse Prologue, the triode Synaxarion, the menaine and triode Solemnity, the Teaching Gospel of Patriarch Callistus, etc. appeared. All this literature was not known in Rus' (or existed in old translations). Ancient Rus' was in dire need of the book treasures of the southern Slavs.

In the XIV century. Rus''s connections with Athos and Constantinople, the largest centers of cultural contacts between Greeks, Bulgarians, Serbs and Russians, were resumed, interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar invasion. In the last decades of the 14th century. and in the first half of the 15th century. The Jerusalem Charter became widespread in Ancient Rus'. At the same time, South Slavic manuscripts were transferred to Rus', where, under their influence, the “book right” began - the editing of church texts and the reform of the literary language. The main directions of the reform were to “cleanse” the book language from “damage” (bringing it closer to colloquial speech), its archaization and Greekization. The renewal of bookishness was caused by the internal needs of Russian life. Simultaneously with the “second South Slavic influence” and independently of it, a revival of Old Russian literature took place. Works preserved from the era of Kievan Rus were diligently searched for, copied and distributed. The revival of pre-Mongol literature, combined with the “second South Slavic influence,” ensured the rapid rise of Russian literature in the 15th century.

From the end of the 14th century. Changes in the rhetorical order are taking place in Russian literature. At this time, a special rhetorically decorated style of presentation appeared and developed, which contemporaries called “weaving words.” "Weaving of words" revived the rhetorical techniques known in the eloquence of Kievan Rus ("The Word of Law and Grace" by Hilarion, "Memory and Praise to the Russian Prince Vladimir" by Jacob, the works of Cyril of Turov), but gave them even greater solemnity and emotionality. In the XIV-XV centuries. Old Russian rhetorical traditions were enriched due to strengthened connections with South Slavic literatures. Russian scribes became acquainted with the rhetorically decorated works of Serbian hagiographers of the 13th-14th centuries. Domentian, Theodosius and Archbishop Danilo II, with monuments of the Bulgarian Tarnovo literary school (primarily with the lives and laudatory words of Patriarch Euthymius of Tarnovo), with the Chronicle of Constantine Manasseh and the “Dioptra” of Philip the Hermit - South Slavic translations of Byzantine poetic works made in the 14th century. ornamental, rhythmic prose.

“Weaving of words” reached its highest development in the work of Epiphanius the Wise. This style was most clearly manifested in the “Life of Stefan of Perm” (1396-98 or 1406-10), the enlightener of the pagan Komi-Zyryans, the creator of the Perm alphabet and literary language, the first bishop of Perm. Epiphanius the Wise is less emotional and rhetorical in his biography of the spiritual educator of the Russian people, Sergius of Radonezh (completed in 1418-19). Life shows in the person of Sergius of Radonezh the ideal of humility, love, meekness, love of poverty and non-covetousness.

The spread of South Slavic influence was facilitated by some Bulgarian and Serbian scribes who moved to Rus'. Prominent representatives of the literary school of Patriarch Euthymius of Tarnovsky were Metropolitan of All Rus' Cyprian, who finally settled in Moscow in 1390, and Gregory Tsamblak, Metropolitan of Lithuanian Rus' (from 1415). The Serb Pachomius Logofetes became famous as the author and editor of many lives, church services, canons, and words of praise. Pachomius Logothetes revised the “Life of Sergius of Radonezh” by Epiphanius the Wise and created several new editions of this monument (1438-50s). Later he wrote “The Life of Kirill Belozersky” (1462), making extensive use of the memories of eyewitnesses. The Lives of Pachomius Logothetes, constructed according to a clear pattern and decorated with “weaving of words,” stand at the origins of a special trend in Russian hagiography with its strict etiquette and magnificent eloquence.

§ 5.2. The collapse of the Byzantine Empire and the rise of Moscow. During the Turkish invasion of the Balkans and Byzantium, an interesting monument appears - “The Legend of the Kingdom of Babylon” (1390s - until 1439). Going back to oral legend, it substantiates the continuity of Byzantine imperial power from the Babylonian monarchy, the arbiter of the destinies of the world, and at the same time proves the equality of Byzantium, Rus' and Abkhazia-Georgia. The subtext was probably a call for joint action among Orthodox countries in support of Byzantium, which was dying under the blows of the Turks.

The threat of Turkish conquest forced the Constantinople authorities to seek help from the Catholic West and, in order to save the empire, make important concessions in the field of religious dogma, agree to submit to the Pope and unite the churches. The Union of Florence of 1439, rejected by Moscow and all Orthodox countries, undermined the influence of the Greek Church on Rus'. The Russian participants in the embassy to the Ferraro-Florence Council (Bishop Abraham of Suzdal and scribes in his retinue) left notes telling about their travels through Western Europe and its attractions. Literary merits are distinguished by “Walking to the Florence Cathedral” by an unknown Suzdal scribe (1437-40) and, obviously, by his “Note on Rome”. Also of interest are the “Exodus” of Bishop Abraham of Suzdal and the “Tale of the Council of Florence” by Hieromonk Simeon of Suzdal (1447).

In 1453, after a 52-day siege, Constantinople, the second Rome - the heart of the once huge Byzantine Empire, fell under the blows of the Turks. In Rus', the collapse of the empire and the Muslim conquest of the entire Orthodox East were considered God's punishment for the great sin of the Union of Florence. The fall of Constantinople is dedicated to the translated "Sobbing" of the Byzantine writer John Eugenicus (50s-60s of the 15th century) and the original "Tale of the Capture of Constantinople by the Turks" (2nd half of the 15th century) - a talented literary monument and valuable historical source attributed to Nestor Iskander. At the end of the story there is a prophecy about the future liberation of Constantinople by the “Rus” - an idea that was subsequently repeatedly discussed in Russian literature.

The conquest of Orthodox countries by the Turks took place against the backdrop of the gradual rise of Moscow as a spiritual and political center. Of exceptional importance was the transfer of the metropolitan see from Vladimir to Moscow under Metropolitan Peter (1308-26) - the first Moscow saint and heavenly patron of the capital. Based on the Brief edition of the “Life of Metropolitan Peter” (1327-28), the earliest monument of Moscow hagiography, Metropolitan Cyprian compiled a Long edition (late 14th century), in which he included Peter’s prophecy about the future greatness of Moscow.

The great victory over the Tatars on the Kulikovo field on September 8, 1380 meant a radical turning point in the fight against foreign rule, was of exceptional importance for the formation of Russian national identity, and was a unifying principle in the era of fragmentation of Russian lands. She convinced her contemporaries that the wrath of God had passed, that the Tatars could be defeated, that complete liberation from the hated yoke was just around the corner.

The echo of the Kulikovo victory did not cease in literature for more than a century. The cycle about the heroes and events of the “massacre on the Don” includes a short (initial) and lengthy story about the Battle of Kulikovo as part of the chronicle collections under 1380. The author of the lyrical-epic “Zadonshchina” (1380s, or, in any case, not later 1470s) turned to the “Tale of Igor’s Campaign” in search of literary samples, but rethought his source. The writer saw in the defeat of the Tatars a fulfilled call of “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign” to put an end to internecine strife and unite in the fight against the nomads. The “Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev” (no later than the end of the 15th century) became widespread in the handwritten tradition - the most extensive and fascinating story about the Battle of Kulikovo, but containing obvious anachronisms, epic and legendary details. Adjacent to the Kulikovo cycle is “A Tale of the Life and Death of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich, Tsar of Russia” (possibly 1412-19) - a solemn panegyric in honor of the Tatar winner Dmitry Donskoy, close in language and rhetorical techniques to the literary manner of Epiphanius the Wise and, probably written by him.

The events after the Battle of Kulikovo are told in “The Tale of the Invasion of Khan Tokhtamysh,” who captured and plundered Moscow in 1382, and “The Tale of Temir Aksak” (early 15th century). The last work is dedicated to the invasion of Rus' in 1395 by the hordes of the Central Asian conqueror Timur (Tamerlane) and the miraculous salvation of the country after the transfer of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God, the “sovereign intercessor” of the Russian land, to Moscow (after standing at the Oka for 15 days, Timur unexpectedly turned back to the south). "The Tale of Temir Aksak", proving the special patronage of the Mother of God of Muscovite Rus', was included in the monumental Grand Duke's Moscow Chronicle of 1479. This monument, compiled shortly after the annexation of Novgorod to Moscow under Ivan III (see § 5.3), formed the basis of all official All-Russian chronicles of the late XV-XVI centuries, grand ducal and royal.

The reign of the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III (1462-1505), married to Sophia (Zoe) Paleologus - the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI, was marked by the cultural rise of Rus', its return to Europe, the unification of Russian lands around Moscow and liberation from the Tatar yoke in 1480 At the moment of the highest confrontation between Moscow and the Golden Horde, Archbishop Vassian of Rostov sent the rhetorically embellished “Message to the Ugra” (1480) - an important historical document and journalistic monument. Following the example of Sergius of Radonezh, who, according to legend, blessed Dmitry Donskoy for the battle, Vassian called on Ivan III to decisively fight the Tatars, declaring his power royal and divinely approved.

§ 5.3. Local literary centers. By the second half of the 15th century. These include the first surviving Pskov chronicles, and at the same time three branches of local chronicles are distinguished, different in their ideological and political views: the first Pskov chronicle, beginning with the “Tale of Dovmont” (see § 4.1), the second and third chronicles. Already in the 14th century. Dovmont was revered as a local saint and heavenly patron of Pskov, which in 1348 separated from the Novgorod feudal republic and was the center of an independent principality until 1510, when it was subordinated to Moscow, as a well-read and talented eyewitness of the events tells in a deeply lyrical and figurative form author, in “The Tale of the Capture of Pskov” (1510s) as part of the Pskov First Chronicle.

In the 15th century in the literature of Veliky Novgorod, conquered by Ivan III in 1478, the “Tale of Posadnik Shchila” appears (apparently not earlier than 1462) - a legend about a moneylender who went to hell, proving the saving power of prayer for dead sinners; the simple, unadorned "Life of Michael Klopsky" (1478-79); chronicle story about Ivan III's campaign against Novgorod in 1471, contrasted with the official position of Moscow in covering this event. In the Moscow chronicle of 1479, the main content of the story about Ivan III’s campaign against Novgorod in 1471 is the idea of ​​the greatness of Moscow as the center of the unification of Russian lands and the continuity of grand-ducal power since the time of Rurik.

The swan song for the powerful Tver principality (shortly before its annexation to Moscow in 1485) was composed by the court writer Monk Thomas in the rhetorically decorated panegyric “A Word of Praise about the Grand Duke Boris Alexandrovich” (c. 1453). Portraying Boris Alexandrovich as the political leader of the Russian land, Thomas called him “autocratic sovereign” and “tsar”, in relation to whom the Grand Duke of Moscow acted as a junior.

The Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin wrote about the lack of brotherly love between princes and justice in Rus', switching to a mixed Turkic-Persian language for safety. Thrown by fate into a foreign land, he spoke in simple and expressive language about his wanderings in distant countries and his stay in India in 1471-74. in travel notes "Walking across Three Seas". Before Nikitin, in Russian literature there was an image of India as a fabulously rich kingdom of Prester John, as a mysterious country located not far from the earthly paradise, inhabited by blessed sages, where amazing miracles are encountered at every step. This fantastic image was formed by “The Tale of the Indian Kingdom” - a translation of a Greek work of the 12th century, “Alexandria” - a Christian adaptation of the Hellenistic novel by Pseudo-Callisthenes about Alexander the Great (in a South Slavic translation no later than the 14th century), “The Lay of the Rahmans”, an ascending to the Chronicle of George Amartol and preserved in the list of the late 15th century. In contrast, Afanasy Nikitin created a real portrait of India, showed its splendor and poverty, described its way of life, customs and folk legends (legends about the gukuk bird and the prince of monkeys).

Along the way, it should be noted that the deeply personal content of the “Walk”, the simplicity and spontaneity of its story are close to the notes of the monk Innocent about the death of Paphnutius Borovsky (apparently 1477-78), the spiritual teacher of Joseph of Volotsky, who created a large literary and book center in the Joseph-Volokolamsk region he founded monastery and became one of the leaders of the "Church Militant".

§ 6. Literature of the "Third Rome"
(late XV - XVI century)
§ 6.1. "Heretical storm" in Rus'. End of the 15th century was gripped by religious fermentation, generated, among other reasons, by the uncertainty of religious and cultural guidelines in the minds of the educated part of Russian society after the fall of Constantinople and the expectation of the end of the world in 7000 from the Creation of the world (in 1492 from the Nativity of Christ). The heresy of "Judaizers" originated in the 1470s. in Novgorod, shortly before he lost his independence, and then spread to Moscow, which defeated him. Heretics questioned the doctrine of the Holy Trinity and did not consider the Virgin Mary to be the Mother of God. They did not recognize church sacraments, condemned the worship of sacred objects, and sharply opposed the veneration of relics and icons. The fight against freethinkers was led by Archbishop Gennady of Novgorod and Abbot Joseph Volotsky. An important monument to theological thought and religious struggle of that time is the “Book on the Novgorod Heretics” by Joseph Volotsky (Short edition - no earlier than 1502, Long edition - 1510-11). This “hammer of the Jews” (cf. the title of the book of the inquisitor John of Frankfurt, published around 1420) or, more precisely, the “hammer of heretics” was renamed in the lists of the 17th century. in "The Enlightener".

At the archbishop's court in Novgorod, Gennady created a large book center open to Western European influences. He assembled a whole staff of employees who translated from Latin and German. Among them were the Dominican monk Veniamin, obviously a Croat by nationality, the German Nikolai Bulev, Vlas Ignatov, Dmitry Gerasimov. Under the leadership of Gennady, the first complete biblical code of the Orthodox Slavs was compiled and translated - the Bible of 1499. In its preparation, in addition to Slavic sources, the Latin (Vulgate) and German Bibles were used. Gennady's theocratic program is substantiated in the work of Veniamin (probably 1497), written in defense of church property from attacks on them by Ivan III and asserting the superiority of spiritual power over secular power.

By order of Gennady, an excerpt (8th chapter) from the calendar treatise of Guillaume Durand (William Durandus) “Conference of Divine Affairs” was translated from Latin in connection with the need to compile the Paschal for the “eighth thousand years” (1495) and the anti-Jewish book “of the teacher Samuel the Jew " (1504). The translation of these works is attributed to Nikolai Bulev or Dmitry Gerasimov. The last of them, also commissioned by Gennady, translated the Latin anti-Judaic work of Nicholas de Lira, “Proof of the Coming of Christ” (1501).

In 1504, at a church council in Moscow, the heretics were found guilty, after which some of them were executed, while others were sent into exile in monasteries. The most prominent figure among the Moscow freethinkers and their leader was the clerk Fyodor Kuritsyn, close to the court of Ivan III. Kuritsyn is credited with "The Tale of the Governor Dracula" (1482-85). The historical prototype of this character is Prince Vlad, nicknamed Tepes (literally 'Impaler'), who ruled "in the Muntean land" (the ancient Russian name for the principality of Wallachia in southern Romania) and died in 1477 shortly before Kuritsyn's embassy to Hungary and Moldavia ( 1482-84). There were numerous rumors and anecdotes about the monstrous inhumanity of Dracula, which Russian diplomats became familiar with. Talking about the numerous cruelties of the “evil-wise” Dracula and comparing him with the devil, the Russian author at the same time emphasizes his justice and merciless fight against evil and crime. Dracula strives to eradicate evil and establish a “great truth” in the country, but he acts using methods of unlimited violence. The question of the limits of supreme power and the moral character of the sovereign became one of the main ones in Russian journalism of the 16th century.

§ 6.2. The rise of journalism. In the 16th century there was an unprecedented rise in journalism. One of the most remarkable and mysterious publicists, the reliability of whose writings and personality itself have more than once been questioned, is Ivan Peresvetov, a native of Lithuanian Rus, who served in mercenary troops in Poland, the Czech Republic and Hungary. Arriving in Moscow in the late 30s. XVI century, during the boyar “autocracy” under the young Ivan IV, Peresvetov took an active part in discussing pressing issues of Russian life. He submitted petitions to the tsar, spoke with political treatises, and wrote journalistic works (the tales of “Magmet-Saltan” and Tsar Constantine Palaeologus). Peresvetov's political treatise, containing an extensive program of government reforms, took the form of a large petition to Ivan IV (1540s). The writer is a convinced supporter of a strong autocratic government. His ideal is a military monarchy modeled on the Ottoman Empire. The basis of its power is the military class. The Tsar is obliged to take care of the well-being of the serving nobility. Anticipating the oprichnina terror, Peresvetov advised Ivan IV to put an end to the arbitrariness of the nobles who were ruining the state with the help of a “thunderstorm.”

Russian writers understood that there was only one step from strong individual power to Dracula’s “man-hunting”. They tried to limit the "royal thunderstorm" by law and mercy. In a letter to Metropolitan Daniel (until 1539), Fyodor Karpov saw the state ideal in a monarchy based on law, truth and mercy.

Church writers were divided into two camps - the Josephites and the non-covetous, or Trans-Volga elders. Metropolitan Gennady, Joseph of Volotsky and his Josephite followers (Metropolitans Daniel and Macarius, Zinovy ​​of Otensky, etc.) defended the right of cenobitic monasteries to own land and peasants, accept rich donations, while not allowing any personal property of the monk. They demanded the death penalty for stubborn heretics, entrenched in their errors ("The Word on the Condemnation of Heretics" in the Long Edition of "The Enlightener" by Joseph Volotsky 1510-11).

The spiritual father of the non-covetous people, the “great elder” Nil Sorsky (c. 1433-7. V. 1508), a preacher of the monastery’s silent life, did not take part in the church-political struggle - this contradicted, first of all, his inner convictions. However, his writings, moral authority and spiritual experience had a great influence on the Trans-Volga elders. Nil Sorsky was an opponent of monastic estates and rich deposits; he considered the hermitage way of life to be the best type of monasticism, understanding it under the influence of hesychasm as an ascetic feat, a path of silence, contemplation and prayer. The dispute with the Josephites was led by his follower, the monastic prince Vassian Patrikeev, and later Elder Artemy became a prominent representative of non-covetousness (see § 6.7). Non-covetous people believed that repentant freethinkers should be forgiven, and hardened criminals should be sent to prison, but not executed (“Response of the Cyril elders to the message of Joseph Volotsky on the condemnation of heretics,” perhaps 1504). The Josephite party, which occupied the highest church positions, used trials in 1525 and 1531. over Patrikeev and Maxim the Greek and in 1553-54. over the heretic boyar's son Matvey Bashkin and the elder Artemy to deal with the non-covetous.

Monuments of the religious struggle are the treatise of Zinovius of Otensky “Truth testimony to those who asked about the new teaching” (after 1566) and the anonymous “Verbose Message” created around the same time. Both works are directed against the fugitive slave Theodosius Kosy, the most radical freethinker in the entire history of Ancient Rus', the creator of the “slave doctrine” - the heresy of the lower classes.

Literature of the first third of the 16th century. developed several ways to connect Russian history with world history. First of all, we should highlight the Chronograph of the 1512 edition (1st quarter of the 16th century), compiled by the nephew and student of Joseph of Volotsky, Dosifei Toporkov (see § 6.5). This is a new type of historical work, introducing into the mainstream of world history the history of the Slavs and Rus', understood as a stronghold of Orthodoxy and the heir of the great powers of the past. Legends about the origin of the Moscow sovereigns from the Roman Emperor Augustus (through his mythical relative Prus, one of the ancestors of Prince Rurik) and about the receipt by Vladimir Monomakh of the royal regalia from the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Monomakh are united in the “Epistle on the Crown of Monomakh” by Spiridon-Sava, the former Metropolitan of Kyiv, and in "The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir". Both legends were used in official documents and Moscow diplomacy in the 16th century.

The response to Boolean’s Catholic propaganda for church union and the primacy of Rome was the theory “Moscow is the Third Rome,” put forward by the elder of the Pskov Eleazar Monastery Philotheus in a letter to clerk M. G. Misyur Munekhin “against the astrologers” (c. 1523-24). After the fall of Catholics from the right faith and the apostasy of the Greeks at the Council of Florence, which were conquered by the Turks as punishment for this, the center of universal Orthodoxy moved to Moscow. Russia was declared the last world monarchy - the Roman power, the only guardian and defender of the pure faith of Christ. The cycle of main works united by the theme of the “Third Rome” includes “Message to the Grand Duke of Moscow on the Sign of the Cross” (between 1524-26), the attribution of which to Philotheus is doubtful, and the essay “On the Insults of the Church” (30s - early 40s) 16th century) the so-called successor of Philotheus.

Works that represented Rus' as the last stronghold of true piety and Christian faith, the heir of Rome and Constantinople, were created not only in Moscow, but also in Novgorod, which, even after the loss of independence, preserved traditions about past greatness and rivalry with Moscow. “The Tale of the Novgorod White Cowl” (XVI century) explains the origin of the special headdress of the Novgorod archbishops with the transfer from Constantinople to Novgorod of a white hood given by the first Christian emperor Constantine the Great to Pope Sylvester I. The same path (Rome-Byzantium-Novgorod land) was made a miraculous image of the Mother of God, according to the “Tale of the Icon of the Mother of God of Tikhvin” (late 15th - 15th centuries). "The Life of Anthony the Roman" (16th century) tells about a hermit who, fleeing persecution of Orthodox Christians in Italy, miraculously sailed on a huge stone to Novgorod in 1106 and founded the Nativity Monastery.

A special place in the literature of the 16th century. occupies the work of Tsar Ivan IV. Grozny represents a historically colorful type of autocratic author. In the role of "Father of the Fatherland" and defender of the right faith, he composed messages, often written with the famous "biting verbs" in a "mockingly sarcastic manner" (correspondence with Kurbsky, letters to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery 1573, oprichnik Vasily Gryazny 1574, Lithuanian prince Alexander Polubensky 1577 , to the Polish king Stefan Batory 1579), gave mandated memorials, made passionate speeches, rewrote history (additions to the Front Chronicle, reflecting his political views), participated in the work of church councils, wrote hymnographic works (canon to the Angel the Terrible, voivode , stichera to Metropolitan Peter, the Presentation of the Icon of the Mother of God of Vladimir, etc.), denounced dogmas alien to Orthodoxy, and participated in learned theological debates. After an open debate with Jan Rokita, pastor of the Czech Brethren community (an offshoot of Husism), he wrote “Answer to Jan Rokita” (1570) - one of the best monuments of anti-Protestant polemics.

§ 6.3. Western European influence. Contrary to popular belief, Muscovite Rus' was not fenced off from Western Europe and the culture of the Latin world. Thanks to Gennady Novgorodsky and his circle, the repertoire of translated literature, which had previously been almost exclusively Greek, changed significantly. The end of the 15th - the first decades of the 16th century. marked by previously unprecedented interest in Western European books. Translations from German appear: “The Debate of Life and Death” (late 15th century), corresponding to the eschatological sentiments of its time - expectations of the end of the world in 7000 (1492); "Lucidarius" (late 15th century - 1st century 16th century) - a general education book of encyclopedic content, written in the form of a conversation between a teacher and a student; medical treatise "The Herbalist" (1534), translated by Nikolai Bulev by order of Metropolitan Daniel.

A Westerner was also such an original writer as Fyodor Karpov, who was sympathetic (unlike Elder Philotheus and Maxim the Greek) towards Boolean’s propaganda of astorology. In a letter to Metropolitan Daniel (before 1539), answering the question of what is more important in the state: people's patience or truth, Karpov argued that the basis of public order is neither one nor the other, but the law, which should be based on truth and mercy. To prove his ideas, Karpov used Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, Ovid's works Metamorphoses, The Art of Love and Fasti.

A notable event in the history of Russian translated literature was the secular Latin novel by the Sicilian Guido de Columna (Guido delle Colonne) “The History of the Destruction of Troy” (1270s), in the Old Russian translation - “The History of the Ruin of Troy” (late XV - early XVI century). The fascinatingly written book was the forerunner of chivalric novels in Rus'. “The Trojan Story” introduced the Russian reader to a wide range of ancient myths (about the campaign of the Argonauts, the history of Paris, the Trojan War, the wanderings of Odysseus, etc.) and romantic stories (stories about the love of Medea and Jason, Paris and Helen, etc.).

The repertoire of translated church literature is also changing dramatically. Translations of Western European Latin theologians appear (see § 6.1 and § 6.3), among which the “Book of St. Augustine” (no later than 1564) stands out. The collection includes “The Life of Augustine” by Bishop Possidios of Calama, two works of Pseudo-Augustine: “On the Vision of Christ, or the Word of God” (Manuale), “Teachings, or Prayers” (Meditationes), as well as two Russian stories of the 16th century. about St. Augustine, which use “wandering” stories told by Maxim the Greek, who developed humanistic traditions in literature and language.

§ 6.4. Russian humanism. D. S. Likhachev, having compared the second South Slavic influence with the Western European Renaissance, came to the conclusion about the typological homogeneity of these phenomena and the existence in Ancient Rus' of a special East Slavic Pre-Renaissance, which was never able to transition into the Renaissance. This opinion gave rise to reasonable objections, which, however, do not mean that in Ancient Rus' there were no correspondences to Western European humanism. As R. Picchio showed, points of contact can be found primarily at the linguistic level: in the area of ​​attitude to the text, to the principles of its translation, transmission and correction. The essence of the Italian Renaissance debate about language (Questione della lingua) consisted, on the one hand, in the desire to justify the use of the vernacular language (Lingua volgare) as a literary language, to establish its cultural dignity, and on the other, in the desire to establish its grammatical and stylistic norms. It is significant that the “book on the right”, based on the Western European sciences of the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics), originates in Rus' with the activities of Maxim the Greek (in the world Mikhail Trivolis), who lived at the turn of the 14th - 15th centuries. during the heyday of the Renaissance in Italy, where he met and collaborated with famous humanists (John Lascaris, Aldus Manutius, etc.).

Having arrived in Moscow from Athos to translate church books in 1518, Maxim the Greek tried to transfer the rich philological experience of Byzantium and Renaissance Italy to Church Slavonic soil. Due to his brilliant education, he became the center of intellectual attraction, quickly gaining admirers and students (Vassian Patrikeev, Elder Silouan, Vasily Tuchkov, later Elder Artemy, Andrei Kurbsky, etc.), worthy opponents (Fedor Karpov) and making such powerful enemies as Metropolitan Daniel. In 1525 and 1531 Maxim Grek, close to non-covetous people and the disgraced diplomat I. N. Bersen Beklemishev, was tried twice, and some of the charges (deliberate damage to church books during their editing) were of a philological nature. Nevertheless, his humanistic views are affirmed both in Russia and in Lithuanian Rus' thanks to his followers and like-minded people who moved there: Elder Artemy, Kurbsky and, possibly, Ivan Fedorov (see § 6.6 and § 6.7).

The literary heritage of Maxim the Greek is great and varied. In the history of Russian journalism, a noticeable mark was left by “The Tale is terrible and memorable and about the perfect monastic residence” (before 1525) - about the mendicant monastic orders in the West and the Florentine preacher G. Savonarola, “The Word, more extensively expounded, with pity for the disorder and disorder of kings and rulers of the last century of this "(between 1533-39 or the middle of the 16th century), denouncing the boyar tyranny under the young Ivan IV, the ideological program of his reign - "The chapters are instructive for those in charge of the faithful" (c. 1547-48), works against ancient myths, astrology , apocrypha, superstitions, in defense of the “book justice” carried out by him and the philological principles of text criticism - “The word is responsible about the correction of Russian books” (1540 or 1543), etc.

§ 6.5. Generalizing literary monuments. The centralization of Russian lands and state power was accompanied by the creation of generalizing book monuments of an encyclopedic nature. Literature of the 16th century as if he sums up the entire path traveled, strives to generalize and consolidate the experience of the past, and create models for future times. At the origins of the generalizing enterprises stands the Gennady Bible of 1499. Literary collecting was continued by another Archbishop of Novgorod (1526-42) - Macarius, who later became Metropolitan of All Rus' (1542-63). Under his leadership, the Great Menaions of Chetia were created - a grandiose collection of spiritual literature in 12 books, arranged in the order of the church monthly. Work on the Makaryev Menaions, begun in 1529/1530 in Novgorod and completed around 1554 in Moscow, lasted almost a quarter of a century. One of the most prominent scholars of Ancient Rus', Macarius united the efforts of famous church and secular scribes, translators and scribes, and created the largest book center. Its employees searched for manuscripts, selected the best texts, edited them, composed new works and created new editions of old monuments.

Under the leadership of Makarii, Dmitry Gerasimov worked, which translated the Latin intelligent psalter of Bishop Brunon Gerbipro, or Würzburg (1535), Vasily Tuchkov, who processed the simple Novgorod "Life of Mikhail Klopsky" in a rhetorically decorated version (1537), the Novgorod presbyter, who wrote the living muchess Ka George is new (1538-39) based on the oral history of the Athonite monks, Dositheus Toporkov - editor of the ancient "Sinai Patericon" (1528-29), the basis of which is the "Spiritual Meadow" (early 7th century) by the Byzantine writer John Moschos. Dosifey Toporkov is known as the compiler of two generalizing monuments: the Chronograph edition of 1512 (see § 6.2) and the “Volokolamsk Patericon” (30s-40s of the 16th century), which resumed the traditions of the “Kievo-Pechersk Patericon” after a long break ". "Volokolamsk Patericon" is a collection of stories about the saints of the Josephite school of Russian monasticism, primarily about Joseph of Volotsky himself, his teacher Paphnutius Borovsky, their associates and followers.

In 1547 and 1549 Macarius held church councils, at which 30 new all-Russian saints were canonized - 8 more than in the entire previous period. After the councils, dozens of lives and services to new miracle workers were created. Among them was the pearl of ancient Russian literature - “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom” (late 1540s) by Ermolai-Erasmus.

The work depicts the love of a peasant girl from the Ryazan land, the daughter of a simple beekeeper, and the Murom prince - a love that conquers all obstacles and even death. The writer created a sublime image of an ideal Russian woman, wise and pious. The peasant princess stands immeasurably higher than the boyars and their wives, who did not want to come to terms with her low origins. Ermolai-Erasmus used folk-poetic “vagrant” stories about the fight against a were-serpent and a wise maiden, incorporating the motifs of a fairy tale. His work reworks the same motifs as the medieval legends about Tristan and Isolde, the Serbian youth song “Queen Milica and the Serpent from Yastrebac”, etc. The story sharply diverges from the hagiographic canon and therefore was not included by Macarius in the Great Menaion of Chetia. Already in the 16th century. they began to correct it, bringing it into line with the requirements of literary etiquette.

Macarius was the inspirer of the church council of 1551, at which many aspects of the church, social and political life of the Moscow kingdom were regulated. The collection of conciliar decrees, arranged in the form of answers of church hierarchs to one hundred questions of Tsar Ivan IV, was called "Stoglav" and for a century was the main normative document of the Russian Church.

Metropolitan Daniel, who angrily denounced human vices in words and teachings, was the editor and compiler of the extensive Nikon Chronicle (late 1520s) - the most complete collection of news on Russian history. The monument had a great influence on subsequent chronicles. It became the main source of information on Russian history in the grandiose Litsey Chronicle Code - the largest chronicle-chronographic work of Ancient Rus'. This authentic "16th-century historical encyclopedia", created by order of Ivan the Terrible, covers world history from biblical times to 1567. It has reached our time in 10 luxuriously decorated volumes, made in the royal workshops and containing more than 16,000 magnificent miniatures.

The Nikon Chronicle was also used in the famous "Book of Degrees" (1560-63). The monument was compiled by the monk of the Chudov Monastery, the confessor of Ivan the Terrible, Athanasius (Metropolitan of Moscow in 1564-66), but the idea apparently belonged to Macarius. "The Power Book" is the first attempt at presenting Russian history on a genealogical basis, in the form of princely biographies starting from the baptist of Rus', Vladimir Svyatoslavich, and up to Ivan IV. The introduction to the "Degree Book" is "The Life of Princess Olga" as edited by Sylvester, archpriest of the Kremlin Annunciation Cathedral.

Sylvester is considered the editor or author-compiler of “Domostroy” - a strictly and detailed “rule” of home life. The monument is a valuable source for studying the life of Russian people of that time, their morals and customs, social and family relations, religious, moral and political views. The ideal of "Domostroy" is a zealous owner who authoritatively manages family affairs in accordance with Christian morality. The language of the work is remarkable. In "Domostroy" the features of book language, business writing and colloquial speech with its imagery and ease merged in a complex fusion. Works of this kind were common in Western Europe. Almost simultaneously with the final edition of our monument, an extensive work by the Polish writer Mikołaj Rey, “The Life of an Economic Man” (1567), appeared.

§ 6.6. The beginning of book printing. Apparently, the emergence of Russian book printing is also connected with the generalizing book enterprises of Metropolitan Macarius. In any case, his appearance in Moscow was caused by the needs of worship and was a state initiative supported by Ivan the Terrible. The printing press made it possible to distribute large quantities of correct and unified liturgical texts, free from the errors of book writers. In Moscow in the first half of the 1550s - mid-1560s. There was an anonymous printing house that produced professionally prepared publications without imprints. According to documents from 1556, the “master of printed books” Marusha Nefediev is known.

In 1564, Ivan Fedorov, deacon of the Church of St. Nicholas Gostunsky in the Moscow Kremlin, and Peter Mstislavets published the Apostle, the first Russian printed book with imprints. In its preparation, the publishers critically used numerous Church Slavonic and Western European sources and did extensive and thorough textual and editorial work. Perhaps it was on this basis that they had serious disagreements with traditionally-minded church hierarchs, who accused them of heresy (like Maximus the Greek earlier, see § 6.4). After two editions of the Book of Hours in Moscow in 1565 and no later than the beginning of 1568, Fedorov and Mstislavets were forced to move to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

With their move abroad, book printing became permanent in the lands of modern Belarus and Ukraine. Using the support of Orthodox patrons, Ivan Fedorov worked in Zabludov, where, together with Peter Mstislavets, he published the Teaching Gospel in 1569, intended to oust translated Catholic and Protestant collections of sermons from use; in Lvov, where he founded the first printing house in Ukraine, he published a new edition Apostle in 1574 and at the same time the first printed book for primary education that has come down to us - the ABC, and in Ostrog, where he published another ABC in 1578, as well as the first complete printed Church Slavonic Bible in 1580-81. The epitaph for Fedorov on the tombstone in Lvov is eloquent: “Drukar [printer - V.K.] of books before you, unprecedented.” Fedorov's prefaces and afterwords to his publications are the most interesting monuments of this literary genre, containing valuable information of a cultural, historical and memoir nature.

§ 6.7. Literature of the Moscow emigration. By the time Fedorov and Mstislavets moved to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, there already existed a circle of Moscow emigrants who were forced for various reasons, religious and political, to leave Russia. The most prominent representatives among them were Elder Artemy and Prince Andrei Kurbsky, both close to Maxim the Greek and continuing his humanistic traditions in literature and language. Moscow emigrants were creative, translated and edited books, and participated in the creation of printing houses and book centers. They contributed to the revival of Church Slavonic literature and the strengthening of Orthodox consciousness in the religious and cultural struggle with Catholics and religious reformers on the eve of the Union of Brest in 1596.

The counterbalance to the official Moscow literature of the 16th century, which deified tsarist power and asserted the originality of autocracy in Rus', was the work of Kurbsky, a representative of the princely-boyar opposition. Immediately after fleeing to Lithuania, he sent his first message to Ivan the Terrible (1564) with accusations of tyranny and apostasy. Ivan the Terrible responded with a political treatise in epistolary form, glorifying “free royal autocracy” (1564). After a break, correspondence resumed in the 1570s. The dispute was about the limits of royal power: autocracy or a limited class-representative monarchy. Kurbsky dedicated “The History of the Grand Duke of Moscow” to the denunciation of Ivan IV and his tyranny (according to I. Auerbach - spring and summer 1581, according to V.V. Kalugin - 1579-81). If the monuments of official historiography of the 50s-60s. XVI century ("The Degree Book", "The Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom", compiled in connection with the conquest of Kazan in 1552, dedicated to this event in the context of three hundred years of Russian-Horde relations "Kazan History") are an apology for Ivan IV and unlimited autocracy, then Kurbsky created the exact opposite he told the tragic story of the moral decline “before the kind and deliberate Tsar,” ending it with a martyrology of the victims of the oprichnina terror, impressive in its artistic power.

In emigration, Kurbsky maintained close relations with the elder Artemy († 1st century 1570s), one of the last adherents of non-covetousness. A follower of Nil Sorsky, Artemy was distinguished by his tolerance for the religious pursuits of others. Among the scribes close to him were such freethinkers as Theodosius Kosoy and Matvey Bashkin. According to the latter’s stipulation, on January 24, 1554, Artemy was condemned by a church council as a heretic and exiled to prison in the Solovetsky Monastery, from where he soon fled to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (c. 1554-55). Having settled in Slutsk, he proved himself to be a staunch fighter for Orthodoxy, an exposer of reform movements and heresies. From his literary heritage, 14 messages have survived.

§ 6.8. On the eve of the Troubles. The tradition of military stories is continued by the “Tale of the Coming of Stefan Batory to the City of Pskov” by icon painter Vasily (1580s), which tells about the heroic defense of the city from the Polish-Lithuanian army in 1581. In 1589, the patriarchate was established in Russia, which contributed to the revival literary activity and book printing. “The Tale of the Life of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich” (before 1604), written by the first Russian Patriarch Job in the traditional style of idealizing biographism, stands at the origins of the literature of the Time of Troubles.

§ 7. From ancient Russian literature to modern literature
(XVII century)
§ 7.1. Literature of the Time of Troubles. XVII century - a transitional era from ancient to new literature, from the Muscovite kingdom to the Russian Empire. This was the century that prepared the way for the comprehensive reforms of Peter the Great.

The "rebellious" century began with the Troubles: a terrible famine, civil war, Polish and Swedish intervention. The events that shook the country gave rise to an urgent need to comprehend them. People of very different views and origins took up the pen: cellarer of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery Avraamy Palitsyn, clerk Ivan Timofeev, who in florid language outlined the events from Ivan the Terrible to Mikhail Romanov in “Vremennik” (work was carried out until the author’s death in 1631), Prince I. A Khvorostinin is a Western writer, a favorite of False Dmitry I, who composed in his defense “The Words of Days, and Tsars, and Moscow Saints” (possibly 1619), Prince S. I. Shakhovskoy is the author of “The Tale in Memory of the Great Martyr Tsarevich Dmitry,” The Tale of a Certain Mnis..." (about False Demetrius I) and, possibly, the "Tale of the Book of Sowing from Previous Years", or the "Chronicle Book" (1st tr. 17th century), which is also attributed to princes I.M. Katyrev-Rostovsky, I. A. Khvorostinin and others.

The tragedy of the Time of Troubles gave rise to vibrant journalism that served the goals of the liberation movement. A propaganda work in the form of a letter-appeal against the Polish-Lithuanian invaders who captured Moscow is “The New Tale of the Glorious Russian Kingdom” (1611). In “Lament for the Captivity and Final Ruin of the Moscow State” (1612), depicting in a rhetorically embellished form “the fall of the great Russia,” propaganda and patriotic letters of the Patriarchs Job, Hermogenes (1607), and the leaders of the people’s militia Prince Dmitry Pozharsky and Prokopiy Lyapunov ( 1611-12). The sudden death at the age of twenty-three of Prince M.V. Skopin-Shuisky, a talented commander and people's favorite, gave rise to persistent rumors about his poisoning by the boyars out of envy, due to dynastic rivalry. Rumors formed the basis of a folk historical song used in the “Scripture on the death and burial of Prince M.V. Skopin-Shuisky” (early 1610s).

Among the most remarkable monuments of ancient Russian literature is the work of Abraham Palitsyn “History in memory of the previous generation.” Abraham began writing it after the accession of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov in 1613 and worked on it until the end of his life in 1626. With great artistic power and with the reliability of an eyewitness, he painted a broad picture of the dramatic events of 1584-1618. Most of the book is devoted to the heroic defense of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery from Polish-Lithuanian troops in 1608-10. In 1611-12 Abraham, together with Archimandrite Dionysius (Zobninovsky) of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, wrote and sent out patriotic messages calling for the fight against foreign invaders. Abraham's energetic activity contributed to the victory of the people's militia, the liberation of Moscow from the Poles in 1612 and the election of Mikhail Fedorovich to the throne at the Zemsky Sobor in 1613.

The events of the Time of Troubles gave impetus to the creation of numerous regional literary monuments (usually in the form of stories and tales of miracles from locally revered icons), dedicated to episodes of the struggle against foreign intervention in different regions of the country: in Kursk, Yaroslavl, Veliky Ustyug, Ustyuzhna, Tikhvinsky, Ryazan Mikhailov monastery and other places.

§ 7.2. Historical truth and fiction. Development of fiction. A feature of the literature of the 17th century. is the use of fictional plots, legends and folk tales in historical stories and tales. The central monument of legendary historiography of the 17th century. - Novgorod "The Tale of Sloven and Rus" (no later than 1638). The work is dedicated to the origins of the Slavs and the Russian state (from the descendants of Patriarch Noah to the calling of the Varangians to Novgorod) and includes the mythical letter of Alexander the Great to the Slavic princes, popular in ancient Slavic literature. The legend was included in the Patriarchal Chronicle of 1652 and became the official version of early Russian history. It had a significant influence on subsequent Russian historiography. The historical outline is completely subordinated to fictional intrigue with elements of an adventurous plot in “The Tale of the Murder of Daniil of Suzdal and the Beginning of Moscow” (between 1652-81).

In the depths of traditional hagiographic genres (tales about the founding of a monastery, about the appearance of the cross, about a repentant sinner, etc.), the sprouts of new narrative forms and literary techniques matured. A fictional folk-poetic plot is used in the “Tale of the Tver Otroche Monastery” (2nd half of the 17th century). The work, dedicated to a traditional theme - the founding of a monastery, is turned into a lyrical story about a man, his love and fate. The basis of the conflict is the unrequited love of the prince’s servant George for the beautiful Ksenia, the daughter of the village sexton, who rejected him on her wedding day and “by God’s will” married her betrothed, the prince. Heartbroken, Gregory becomes a hermit and founds the Tverskaya Otroch Monastery.

Murom literature of the first half of the 17th century. gave wonderful images of ideal female types. As in “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom,” which captures the sublime image of a wise peasant princess (see § 6.5), the events in these stories unfold not in the monastery, but in the world. Features of the life and biography are connected by “The Tale of Ulyaniya Osoryina”, or “The Life of Julian Lazarevskaya”. The author, the son of Ulyaniya Kallistrat (Druzhina) Osoryin, created a work that is unusual for hagiographic literature, and in many ways diverges from generally accepted views on the deeds of saints. The Murom landowner with all her behavior affirms the sanctity of a virtuous life in the world. She embodies the ideal character of a Russian woman, compassionate and hardworking, daily engaged in business and caring for her neighbors. "The Tale of Martha and Mary" or "The Tale of the Unzhe Cross" paints vivid pictures taken from life. The miraculous origin of the local shrine, the life-giving cross, is connected here with the fate of loving sisters, separated for a long time by a quarrel between their husbands over a place of honor at the feast.

In the 17th century works are being created with frankly fictitious plots, anticipating the emergence of fiction in the proper sense of the word. The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn (possibly 1660s) is extremely important for understanding changes in cultural consciousness. The work is in close connection with demonological legends and motifs widespread in Russian literature of that time. It is enough to name, for example, “The Tale of the Possessed Wife Solomonia” by priest Jacob from Veliky Ustyug (probably between 1671 and 1676), a fellow countryman of the actually existing merchants Grudtsyn-Usov. At the same time, the basis of “The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn” is the theme of the contract between man and the devil and the sale of the soul for worldly goods, honors and love pleasures, which was thoroughly developed in the Western European Middle Ages. The successful outcome of demonological plots is intended to testify to the power of the Church, defeating the machinations of the devil, to the saving intercession of heavenly powers, and especially the Mother of God (as, for example, in the famous cycle of medieval works about Theophilus, one of which was translated by A. Blok, or in the case of Savva Grudtsyn). However, in the story, religious didactics, characteristic of stories about repentant sinners, is overshadowed by a colorful depiction of everyday life and customs, and folk-poetic images dating back to Russian fairy tales.

Writers of the 17th century for the first time they realized the self-sufficient value of artistic comprehension of the world and artistic generalization. This turning point in the history of Russian literature is clearly reflected in "The Tale of Misfortune" - an unusually lyrical and deep work written in beautiful folk poetry. "The Tale of Misfortune" was conceived as a moral and philosophical parable about the prodigal son, an unfortunate vagabond hawk-moth, driven by an evil fate. In the collective image of a fictional hero (a nameless young merchant), the eternal conflict between fathers and sons, the theme of a fatal unfortunate fate, the desired deliverance from which is only death or entering a monastery, are revealed with amazing force. The ominously fantastic image of Grief-Misfortune personifies the dark impulses of the human soul, the guilty conscience of the young man himself.

“The Tale of Frol Skobeev” became a new phenomenon in the literature of Peter the Great’s time. Its hero is a noble nobleman who seduced a rich bride and secured a comfortable life for himself with a successful marriage. This is a type of cunning cunning, joker and even swindler. Moreover, the author does not condemn his hero at all, but even seems to admire his resourcefulness. All this brings the story closer to the works of the picaresque genre, fashionable in Western Europe in the 16th-17th centuries. “The Tale of Karp Sutulov” (late 17th - early 18th centuries), which glorifies the resourceful female mind and ridicules the unlucky love affairs of a merchant, priest and bishop, also has an entertaining plot. Its satirical orientation grows out of the folk culture of laughter, which flourished in the 17th century.

§ 7.3. Folk laughter culture. One of the brightest signs of the transitional era is the flourishing of satire, closely connected with folk laughter culture and folklore. Satirical literature of the 17th century. reflected a decisive departure from the old book-Slavic traditions and “spiritual reading”, apt folk speech and imagery. For the most part, monuments of folk laughter culture are independent and original. But even if Russian writers sometimes borrowed plots and motifs, they gave them a vivid national imprint.

"The ABC of the Naked and Poor Man" is directed against social injustice and poverty. Judicial red tape and legal proceedings are ridiculed by "The Tale of Ersha Ershovich" (possibly from the end of the 16th century), corruption and bribery of judges - "The Tale of Shemyakin's Court", which develops a picaresque line in Russian literature on the basis of a "vagrant" plot. The target of satire is the life and customs of the clergy and monasticism (“Kalyazin Petition”, “The Tale of Priest Sava”). The ill-fated losers, who literally have the luck of drowning, are presented in a clownish form in “The Tale of Thomas and Erem.”

Monuments of folk laughter culture with great sympathy depict the intelligence, dexterity and resourcefulness of the common man ("The Tale of Shemyakin's Court", "The Tale of a Peasant Son"). Behind the outer comic side of “The Tale of Hawkmoth,” who outdid the righteous and took the best place in heaven, lies a polemic with church ritual formalism and is proof that human weaknesses cannot interfere with salvation if there is faith in God and Christian love for others in the soul .

Folk laughter culture of the 17th century. (“The Tale of Ersha Ershovich”, depicting a land dispute, and “Kalyazin Petition”, depicting the drunkenness of monks) widely uses genres of business writing for comic purposes: the form of a court case and petitions - official petitions and complaints. The language and structure of medical books, recipes and documents of the Pharmacy Order are parodied by the clownish “Medicine for Foreigners”, obviously created by one of the Muscovites.

In the 17th century for the first time in the history of ancient Russian literature, parodies of the Church Slavonic language and liturgical texts appear. Although the number of monuments of this kind is small, undoubtedly, only a few parodies have survived to our time, created among scribes who were well-read in church books and knew their language well. Writers of the 17th century they knew how not only to pray, but also to have fun in the Church Slavonic way. Sacred plots are played out to a greater or lesser extent in “The Tale of the Peasant’s Son” and “The Tale of the Hawk Moth.” In the genre of parodia sacra, the “Service for the Tavern” was written - a clownish tavern liturgy, the oldest copy of which dates back to 1666. “Service for the Tavern” is in line with traditions dating back to such Latin services for drunkards, such as, for example, “The Most Drunken Liturgy” (13th century) - the greatest monument of medieval learned buffoonery in the literature of the vagants. The Western European “vagrant” plot, “turning inside out” church confession, is used in “The Tale of the Hen and the Fox.”

The dystopian genre also came to Rus' from Western Europe. The satirical “Tale of Luxurious Life and Joy,” a Russian adaptation of a Polish source, depicts in a Rabelaisian manner a fabulous paradise of gluttons and drunkards. The work is opposed to popular utopian legends like those that fed the legends about Belovodye, a wonderful, happy country where true faith and piety bloom, where there is no untruth or crime. Faith in Belovodye lived among the people for a long time, forcing brave dreamers to go in search of the blessed land to distant overseas lands back in the second half of the 19th century. (see essays by V. G. Korolenko “At the Cossacks”, 1901).

§ 7.4. Activation of local literary life. Since the Time of Troubles, local literatures have been developing, maintaining connections with the center and, as a rule, traditional forms of storytelling. XVII century presents in abundance examples of the glorification of local shrines that have not received all-Russian veneration (lives, tales of miraculous icons, stories of monasteries) and examples of the creation of new editions of already known works. From the literary monuments of the Russian North, one can highlight the biographies of saints who lived in the 16th century: “The Tale of the Life of Varlaam of Keretsky” (17th century) - a Kola priest who killed his wife and in great grief wandered in a boat with her corpse along the White Sea, begging God's forgiveness, and "The Life of Tryphon of Pechenga" (late 17th - early 18th centuries) - the founder of the northernmost monastery on the Pechenga River, educator of the Sami in the western part of the Kola Peninsula.

The first history of Siberia is the chronicle of the Tobolsk clerk Savva Esipov (1636). Its traditions were continued in the “History of Siberia” (late 17th century or until 1703) by the Tobolsk nobleman Semyon Remezov. The cycle of stories is dedicated to the capture of Azov by the Don Cossacks in 1637 and their heroic defense of the fortress from the Turks in 1641. The “poetic” “Tale of the Azov Siege of the Don Cossacks” (1641-42) combines documentary accuracy with Cossack folklore. In the “fairytale” story about Azov (70s-80s of the 17th century) that used it, historical truth gives way to artistic fiction based on a large number of oral traditions and songs.

§ 7.5. Western European influence. In the 17th century Muscovite Rus' is rapidly ending the medieval era, as if in a hurry to make up for lost time over the previous centuries. This time was marked by Russia's gradual but steadily increasing attraction to Western Europe. In general, Western influence did not penetrate to us directly, but through Poland and Lithuanian Rus' (Ukraine and Belarus), which largely adopted Latin-Polish culture. Western European influence increased the composition and content of our literature, contributed to the emergence of new literary genres and themes, satisfied new reader tastes and needs, provided abundant material for Russian authors and changed the repertoire of translated works.

The largest translation center was the Ambassadorial Prikaz in Moscow, which was in charge of relations with foreign states. At various times it was headed by outstanding diplomats, political and cultural figures - such as, for example, the philanthropists and bibliophiles Boyar A. S. Matveev (§ 7.8) or Prince V. V. Golitsyn. In the 70s-80s. XVII century they directed the literary, translation and book activities of the Ambassadorial Prikaz. In 1607, a native of Lithuanian Rus', F.K. Gozvinsky, who served there, translated Aesop’s fables and his legendary biography from ancient Greek. Another embassy translator, Ivan Gudansky, participated in the collective translation of the “Great Mirror” (1674-77) and independently translated from Polish the famous knightly novel “The Story of Melusine” (1677) with a fairy-tale plot about a werewolf woman.

The translated chivalric romance became one of the most significant events of the transition era. He brought with him many new exciting stories and impressions: exciting adventures and fantasy, a world of selfless love and friendship, the cult of ladies and female beauty, a description of knightly tournaments and fights, a knightly code of honor and nobility of feelings. Foreign fiction came to Russia not only through Poland and Lithuanian Rus', but also through the South Slavs, the Czech Republic and other routes.

The Tale of Beauvais the Prince was especially loved in Rus' (according to V.D. Kuzmina, no later than the middle of the 16th century). It goes back through a Serbian translation to the medieval French novel about the exploits of Bovo d’ Anton, which traveled throughout Europe in various poetic and prose adaptations. Oral existence preceded the literary treatment of the famous "Tale of Eruslan Lazarevich", which reflected the ancient Eastern legend about the hero Rustem, known in the poem "Shah-name" by Firdousi (10th century). Among the early translations (no later than the mid-17th century) is “The Tale of Stilfried” - a Czech adaptation of a German poem from the late 13th or early 14th centuries. about Reinfried of Brunswick. “The Tale of Peter of the Golden Keys” (2nd half of the 17th century) was translated from Polish, going back to the popular French novel about Peter and the beautiful Magelona, ​​created in the 15th century. at the court of the Burgundian dukes. In the XVIII - XIX centuries. the stories about Bova the Prince, Peter the Golden Keys, and Eruslan Lazarevich were favorite folk tales and popular print books.

Foreign fiction appealed to the taste of the Russian reader, causing imitations and adaptations that gave it a pronounced local flavor. Translated from Polish, “The Tale of Caesar Otto and Olund” (1670s), telling about the adventures of the slandered and exiled queen and her sons, was reworked in a church-didactic spirit into “The Tale of the Queen and the Lioness” (late 17th century .). There are still debates about whether “The Tale of Vasily Goldhair,” close to the fairy-tale story about a proud princess (probably the 2nd half of the 17th century), is translated or Russian (written under the influence of foreign entertainment literature).

In the last third of the 17th century. Popular collections of stories and pseudo-historical legends with a predominant church-moralistic spirit, translated from Polish, are becoming widespread: “The Great Mirror” in two translations (1674-77 and 1690s) and “Roman Acts” (last 17th century). ), which used plots from late Roman writers, which explains the title of the book. In the same way, through Poland, secular works come to Russia: “Facetius” (1679) - a collection of stories and anecdotes that introduces the reader to the short stories of the Renaissance, and apothegmata - collections containing apothegmata - witty sayings, anecdotes, entertaining and moralizing stories. No later than the last quarter of the 17th century. The Polish collection of apothegms of A. B. Budny († after 1624), a figure of the Reformation era, was translated twice.

§ 7.6. Pioneers of Russian versification. Rhyme in ancient Russian literature originated not in poetry, but in rhetorically organized prose with its love for the equality of structural parts of the text (isokolia) and parallelism, which were often accompanied by consonance of endings (homeoteleutons - grammatical rhymes). Many writers (for example, Epiphanius the Wise, Andrei Kurbsky, Abraham Palitsyn) consciously used rhyme and rhythm in prose.

Since the Time of Troubles, verse poetry has firmly entered Russian literature with its spoken verse, unequally complex and rhymed. Pre-syllabic poetry was based on ancient Russian book and oral traditions, but at the same time it experienced influences coming from Poland and Lithuanian Rus'. The older poets were well acquainted with Western European culture. Among them, an aristocratic literary group stands out: princes S.I. Shakhovskoy and I.A. Khvorostinin, okolnichy and diplomat Alexei Zyuzin, but there were also clerks: Fyodor Gozvinsky, a native of Lithuanian Rus', and Antony Podolsky, one of the writers of the Time of Troubles, Evstratiy - author "serpentine" or "serpentine" verse, common in Baroque literature.

For the 30s-40s. XVII century The formation and flowering of the “prikaz school” of poetry, which united employees of the Moscow orders, took place. The center of literary life became the Printing Yard, the largest center of culture and the place of work of many writers and poets. The most prominent representative of the “school of ordered poetry” was the monk Savvaty, the director (editor) of the Printing House. His colleagues Ivan Shevelev Nasedka, Stefan Gorchak, and Mikhail Rogov left a noticeable mark on the history of Virsch poetry. All of them wrote mainly didactic messages, spiritual instructions, poetic prefaces, often giving them the form of extended acrostics containing the name of the author, addressee or customer.

An echo of the Troubles is the work of clerk Timofey Akundinov (Akindinov, Ankidinov, Ankudinov). Enmeshed in debt and under investigation, in 1644 he fled to Poland and for nine years, moving from one country to another, posed as the heir of Tsar Vasily Shuisky. In 1653, he was handed over by Holstein to the Russian government and quartered in Moscow. Akundinov is the author of a poetic declaration to the Moscow embassy in Constantinople in 1646, the metrics and style of which are typical of the “order school” of poetry.

In the last third of the 17th century. spoken verse was supplanted from high poetry by more strictly organized syllabic verse and moved into lower literature.

§ 7.7. Baroque literature and syllabic poetry. Syllabic versification was brought to Russia (largely through Belarusian-Ukrainian mediation) from Poland, where the main syllabic meters in Baroque literature developed in the 16th century. based on examples of Latin poetry. Russian verse received a qualitatively new rhythmic organization. The syllabic is based on the principle of equisyllabicity: rhyming lines must have the same number of syllables (most often 13 or 11), and in addition, exclusively feminine rhymes are used (as in Polish, where words have a fixed stress on the penultimate syllable). The work of the Belarusian Simeon of Polotsk was of decisive importance in the dissemination of a new verbal culture and syllabic poetry with a developed system of poetic meters and genres.

Having moved to Moscow in 1664 and becoming the first court poet in Russia, Simeon of Polotsk was the creator of not only his own poetic school, but the entire literary movement of the Baroque - the first Western European style to penetrate Russian literature. Until the end of his life († 1680), the writer worked on two huge collections of poetry: “Vertograd of many colors” and “Rhythmologion, or Poetry Book”. His main poetic work, “The Vertograd of Many Colors,” is a “poetry encyclopedia” typical of Baroque culture with thematic headings arranged in alphabetical order (1,155 titles in total), often including entire cycles of poems and containing information on history, natural philosophy, cosmology, theology , ancient mythology, etc. Characteristic of elite baroque literature is the “Rhythmologion” - a collection of panegyric poems on various occasions in the life of the royal family and nobles. In 1680, the “Rhyming Psalter” by Simeon of Polotsk was published - the first poetic arrangement of psalms in Russia, created in imitation of the “Psalter of David” (1579) by the Polish poet Jan Kokhanovsky. An extremely prolific author, Simeon of Polotsk wrote plays in verse on biblical subjects: “About King Nechadnezzar...” (1673 - early 1674), “The Comedy of the Parable of the Prodigal Son” (1673-78), containing typical Russian life of that time conflict between fathers and children, polemical works: the anti-Old Believer “Rod of Government” (ed. 1667), sermons: “The Soulful Dinner” (1675, published 1682) and “The Soulful Supper” (1676, published 1683), etc.

After the death of Simeon of Polotsk, the place of court writer was taken by his student Sylvester Medvedev, who dedicated an epitaph to the memory of his mentor - “Epitafion” (1680). Having led the Moscow Westerners - the “Latinizers”, Medvedev led a decisive struggle with the party of Grecophile writers (Patriarch Joachim, Evfimy Chudovsky, brothers Ioannikiy and Sophrony Likhud, Hierodeacon Damascus), and fell in this struggle, executed in 1691. In collaboration with Karion Istomin Medvedev wrote a historical essay about the reforms of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich, the Streltsy revolt of 1682 and the first years of the regency of Princess Sophia - “A brief contemplation of the years 7190, 91 and 92, in them what happened in citizenship.” End of the 17th century was the time of greatest creative success for the court author Karion Istomin, who wrote a huge number of poems and poems, epitaphs and epigrams, orations and panegyrics. His innovative pedagogical work, the illustrated poetic "Primer" (entirely engraved 1694 and typeset 1696), was reprinted and used as an educational book at the beginning of the 19th century.

A school of poetry also existed in the New Jerusalem Monastery of the Resurrection founded by Patriarch Nikon, the most prominent representatives of which were Archimandrites Herman († 1681) and Nikanor (2nd half of the 17th century), who used isosyllabic versification.

An outstanding representative of Baroque authors was the Ukrainian Dimitri Rostovsky (in the world Daniil Savvich Tuptalo), who moved to Russia in 1701. A writer of versatile talents, he became famous as a wonderful preacher, poet and playwright, author of works against the Old Believers ("Search for the schismatic Bryn faith", 1709). The work of Demetrius of Rostov, the East Slavic “metaphrast,” summed up ancient Russian hagiography. For almost a quarter of a century he worked on a general collection of the lives of saints. Having collected and processed numerous Old Russian (Great Menaion of Cheti, etc.), Latin and Polish sources, Demetrius created a “hagiographical library” - “Lives of the Saints” in four volumes. His work was published for the first time in the printing house of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra in 1684-1705. and immediately won lasting readership.

§ 7.8. The beginning of the Russian theater. The development of Baroque culture with its favorite postulate: life is the stage, people are actors, contributed to the birth of the Russian theater. The idea of ​​its creation belonged to the famous statesman, Westerner boyar A.S. Matveev, head of the Ambassadorial Prikaz. The first play of the Russian theater was "The Artaxerxes Action". It was written in 1672 by decree of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich on the plot of the biblical book of Esther by Lutheran pastor Johann Gottfried Gregory from the German settlement in Moscow (possibly with the participation of Leipzig medical student Laurentius Ringuber). "Artaxerxes' action" was created in imitation of Western European drama of the 16th - 17th centuries. on biblical stories. The play, written in German poetry, was translated into Russian by employees of the Ambassadorial Prikaz. First staged on the opening day of the court theater of Alexei Mikhailovich on October 17, 1672, it ran for 10 hours without intermission.

Russian theater was not limited to religious subjects. In 1673, it turned to ancient mythology and staged the musical ballet "Orpheus" based on the German ballet "Orpheus and Eurydice". Gregory's successor, the Saxon Georg Hüfner (in the Russian pronunciation of that time - Yuri Mikhailovich Gibner or Givner), who directed the theater in 1675-76, compiled and translated "Temir-Aksakov's action" based on various sources. The play, dedicated to the struggle of the Central Asian conqueror Timur with the Turkish Sultan Bayezid I, was topical in Moscow both from a historical perspective (see § 5.2) and in connection with the brewing war with Turkey over Ukraine in 1676-81. Despite the fact that the court theater existed for less than four years (until the death of the “main theatergoer,” Alexei Mikhailovich on January 29, 1676), it was with it that the history of Russian theater and drama began.

By the beginning of the 18th century. School theater, used for educational and religious-political purposes in Western European educational institutions, penetrates into Russia. In Moscow, theatrical performances were held at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy (see § 7.9), for example, “The Terrible Comedy of the Treason of a Voluptuous Life” (1701), written on the theme of the Gospel parable about the rich man and the beggar Lazarus. A new stage in the development of school theater was the dramaturgy of Metropolitan Dimitry of Rostov, the author of “comedies” for the Nativity of Christ (1702) and for the Dormition of the Virgin Mary (probably 1703-05). In the Rostov school, opened by Demetrius in 1702, not only his plays were staged, but also the works of teachers: the drama “The Crown of Demetrius” (1704) in honor of the heavenly patron of the Metropolitan Great Martyr Demetrius of Thessaloniki, composed, it is believed, by the teacher Evfimy Morogin. At the beginning of the 18th century. Based on the lives, as edited by Dmitry of Rostov, plays were performed in the court theater of Princess Natalya Alekseevna, the beloved sister of Peter I: the “comedy” of Varlaam and Joasaph, the martyrs Evdokia, Catherine, etc.

§ 7.9. Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. The idea of ​​​​creating the first higher educational institution in Muscovite Rus' belonged to the Baroque authors - Simeon of Polotsk and Sylvester Medvedev, who wrote on behalf of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich “Priviles of the Moscow Academy” (approved in 1682). This document defined the foundations of a state higher educational institution with an extensive program, rights and prerogatives for the training of secular and ecclesiastical professional personnel. However, the first leaders and teachers of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, opened in Moscow in 1687, were the opponents of Simeon of Polotsk and Sylvester Medvedev - the learned Greek brothers Ioannikis and Sophronius Likhud. The Academy, where Church Slavonic, Greek, Latin, grammar, poetics, rhetoric, physics, theology and other subjects were taught, played an important role in the spread of enlightenment. In the first half of the 18th century. From its walls came such famous writers and scientists as A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Trediakovsky, M. V. Lomonosov, V. E. Adodurov, A. A. Barsov, V. P. Petrov and others.

§ 7.10. Church schism and Old Believer literature. The rapidly expanding work of the Moscow Printing House required an increasing number of experts in theology, grammar and Greek. The “Kyiv elders” Epiphany Slavinetsky, Arseny Satanovsky and Damaskin Ptitsky, who arrived in Moscow in 1649-50, were invited to Russia to translate and edit books. Boyarin F.M. Rtishchev built St. Andrew's Monastery for the "Kyiv elders" on his estate on the Sparrow Hills. There they began academic work and opened a school in which young Moscow clerks studied Greek and Latin. Southwestern Russian bookishness became one of the sources of Nikon's church reform. Its other component was the modern Greek church rite, the differences of which from the Old Russian rite were of concern to Patriarch Joseph.

In 1649-50. the learned monk Arseny (in the world Anton Sukhanov) carried out responsible diplomatic assignments in Ukraine, Moldova and Wallachia, where he participated in a theological debate with the Greek hierarchs. The dispute is described in the “Debate with the Greeks about Faith,” where the purity of Russian Orthodoxy and its rituals (two fingers, special alleluia, etc.) is proven. In 1651-53. with the blessing of Patriarch Joseph, Arseny traveled to the Orthodox East (Constantinople, Jerusalem, Egypt) for the purpose of comparative study of Greek and Russian church practice. Sukhanov outlined what he saw during the trip and critical reviews of the Greeks in the essay “Proskinitarium” ‘Admirer (of holy places)’ (from the Greek rspukkhnEsh ‘to worship’) (1653).

In 1653, Patriarch Nikon began to unify the Russian church ritual tradition with the modern Greek one and with the Orthodox Church in general. The most significant innovations were: the replacement of the two-finger sign of the cross with the three-finger sign (to which the Byzantines themselves switched under Latin influence after the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204); printing on prosphora a four-pointed cross (Latin “kryzha”, as the Old Believers believed) instead of the Old Russian eight-pointed one; transition from a special hallelujah to a triple hallelujah (from its twice repetition during worship to three times); exclusion from the eighth member of the Creed ("True Lord") of the definition true; writing the name of Christ with two and (Iisus), and not with one (Isus) (in translations from the Greek Ostromir Gospel of 1056-57, Izbornik 1073, both options are still presented, but subsequently in Rus' a tradition was established to write the name with one i ) and much more. As a result of the "book law" in the second half of the 17th century. a new version of the Church Slavonic language was created.

Nikon's reform, which broke the centuries-honored Russian way of life, was rejected by the Old Believers and marked the beginning of a church schism. The Old Believers opposed orientation towards foreign church orders, defended the faith of their fathers and grandfathers, ancient Slavic-Byzantine rituals, defended national identity and were against the Europeanization of Russian life. The Old Believer environment turned out to be unusually rich in talents and bright personalities, and a brilliant galaxy of writers emerged from it. Among them were the founder of the “God-loving” movement Ivan Neronov, Archimandrite Spiridon Potemkin, Archpriest Avvakum Petrov, Solovetsky monks Gerasim Firsov, Epiphanius and Geronty, a preacher of self-immolation as the last means of salvation from the Antichrist, Hierodeacon Ignatius of Solovetsky, his opponent and denouncer of “suicidal deaths” Efrosin, priest Lazar, deacon Fyodor Ivanov, monk Abraham, Suzdal priest Nikita Konstantinov Dobrynin and others.

The inspired speeches of Archpriest Avvakum attracted to him numerous followers not only from the lower classes, but also from the aristocracy (boyar F. P. Morozova, princess E. P. Urusova, etc.). This was the reason for his exile to Tobolsk in 1653, then to Dauria in 1656 and later to Mezen in 1664. In 1666, Avvakum was summoned to Moscow for a church council, where he was defrocked and anathematized, and the next year he was exiled to the Pustozersky prison together with other defenders of the “old faith.” During their almost 15-year imprisonment in an earthen prison, Avvakum and his comrades (Elder Epiphanius, priest Lazar, deacon Fyodor Ivanov) did not stop fighting. The moral authority of the prisoners was so great that even the prison guards participated in the dissemination of their works. In 1682, Avvakum and his comrades were burned in Pustozersk “for great blasphemy against the royal house.”

In the Pustozersk prison, Avvakum created his main works: “The Book of Conversations” (1669-75), “The Book of Interpretations and Moral Teachings” (c. 1673-76), “The Book of Reproof, or the Eternal Gospel” (c. 1676) and a masterpiece of Russian literature - "Life" in three author's editions 1672, 1673 and 1674-75. The work of Avvakum is far from the only autobiographical life in the 16th - 17th centuries. Among its predecessors were the story of Martyriy Zelenetsky (1580s), “The Legend of the Anzersky Skete” (late 1630s) by Eleazar and the remarkable “Life” (in two parts 1667-71 and ca. 1676) by Epiphany, spiritual father of Habakkuk. However, the “Life” of Avvakum, written in the “Russian natural language”, unique in its richness and expressiveness, is not only an autobiography, but also a sincere confession of a truth-seeker and a fiery sermon of a fighter ready to die for his ideals. Avvakum, the author of more than 80 theological, epistolary, polemical and other works (some of them have been lost), combines extreme traditionalism with bold innovation in creativity, and especially in language. The word Habakkuk grows from the deepest roots of truly popular speech. The living and figurative language of Avvakum is close to the literary style of the Old Believer Ioann Lukyanov, the author of pilgrimage notes about the “walk” to Jerusalem in 1701-03.

"The Tale of "Boyaryna Morozova", a work of high artistic merit. Soon after the death of the disgraced noblewoman, an author close to her (obviously, her brother, boyar Fyodor Sokovnin) created in the form of a life a vivid and truthful chronicle of one of the most dramatic events in the history of the early Old Believers.

In 1694, in the northeast of Lake Onega, Daniil Vikulin and Andrei Denisov founded the Vygovskoe hostel, which became the largest book and literary center of the Old Believers in the 18th - mid-19th centuries. The Old Believer book culture, which also developed in Starodubye (from 1669), on Vetka (from 1685) and in other centers, continued the Old Russian spiritual traditions in new historical conditions.

MAIN SOURCES AND LITERATURE

SOURCES. Monuments of literature of Ancient Rus'. M., 1978-1994. [Vol. 1-12]; Library of literature of Ancient Rus'. St. Petersburg, 1997-2003. T. 1-12 (edition in progress).

RESEARCH. Adrianova-Peretz V.P. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and monuments of Russian literature of the 11th-13th centuries. L., 1968; It's her. Old Russian literature and folklore. L., 1974; Eremin I.P. Lectures and articles on the history of ancient Russian literature. 2nd ed. L., 1987; The origins of Russian fiction. L., 1970; Kazakova N. A., Lurie Y. S. Antifeudal heretical movements in Rus' in the 14th - early 16th centuries. M.; L., 1955; Klyuchevsky V. O. Old Russian lives of saints as a historical source. M., 1989; Likhachev D.S. Man in the literature of Ancient Rus'. M., 1970; It's him. Development of Russian literature of the X-XVII centuries: Epochs and styles. L., 1973; It's him. Poetics of Old Russian Literature. 3rd ed. M., 1979; Meshchersky N. A. Sources and composition of ancient Slavic-Russian translated writing of the 9th-15th centuries. L., 1978; Panchenko A. M. Russian poetic culture of the 17th century. L., 1973; It's him. Russian culture on the eve of Peter's reforms. L., 1984; Peretz V.N. From lectures on the methodology of the history of literature. Kyiv, 1914; Robinson A. N. Lives of Avvakum and Epiphanius: Research and texts. M., 1963; It's him. Literature of Ancient Rus' in the literary process of the Middle Ages in the 11th-13th centuries: Essays on literary-historical typology. M., 1980; Russian literature of the 10th - first quarter of the 18th century. / Ed. D. S. Likhacheva // History of Russian literature: In four volumes. L., 1980. T. 1. P. 9-462; Sazonova L.I. Poetry of the Russian Baroque: (second half of the 17th - beginning of the 18th century). M., 1991; Sobolevsky A.I. Translated literature of Moscow Rus' of the XIV-XVII centuries. St. Petersburg, 1903; Shakhmatov A. A. History of Russian chronicles. St. Petersburg, 2002. T. 1. Book. 1; 2003. T. 1. Book. 2.

TEXTBOOKS, READINGS. Buslaev F.I. Historical anthology of Church Slavonic and Old Russian languages. M., 1861; Gudziy N.K. History of ancient Russian literature. 7th ed. M., 1966; It's him. Reader on ancient Russian literature / Scientific. ed. N. I. Prokofiev. 8th ed. M., 1973; History of Russian literature X - XVII centuries. / Ed. D. S. Likhacheva. M., 1985; Kuskov V.V. History of ancient Russian literature. 7th ed. M., 2002; Orlov A. S. Ancient Russian literature XI - XVII centuries. 3rd ed. M.; L., 1945; Picchio R. Old Russian literature. M., 2001; Speransky M. N. History of ancient Russian literature. 4th ed. St. Petersburg, 2002.

DIRECTORIES. Bibliography of Soviet Russian works on literature of the 11th-17th centuries. for 1917-1957 / Comp. N. F. Droblenkova. M.; L., 1961; Bibliography of works on Old Russian literature published in the USSR: 1958-1967. / Comp. N. F. Droblenkova. L., 1978. Part 1 (1958-1962); L., 1979. Part 2 (1963-1967); the same: 1968-1972 / Comp. N. F. Droblenkova. St. Petersburg, 1996; the same: 1973-1987 / Comp. A.G. Bobrov et al. St. Petersburg, 1995. Part 1 (1973-1977); St. Petersburg, 1996. Part 2 (1978-1982); St. Petersburg, 1996. Part 3 (1983-1987); Bibliography of works on Old Russian literature published in the USSR (Russia): 1988-1992. / Comp. O. A. Belobrova et al. St. Petersburg, 1998 (edition in progress); Dictionary of scribes and bookishness of Ancient Rus'. L., 1987. Issue. 1 (XI-first half of the XIV century); L., 1988. Issue. 2 (second half of the XIV-XVI centuries). Part 1 (A-K); L., 1989. Issue. 2 (second half of the XIV-XVI centuries). Part 2 (L-Y); St. Petersburg, 1992. Issue. 3 (XVII century). Part 1 (A-Z); St. Petersburg, 1993. Issue. 3 (XVII century). Part 2 (I-O); St. Petersburg, 1998. Issue. 3 (XVII century). Part 3 (P-S); St. Petersburg, 2004. Issue. 3 (XVII century). Part 4 (T-Y); Encyclopedia "Tales about Igor's Campaign". St. Petersburg, 1995. T. 1-5.

The first rhetoric appeared in Russia only at the beginning of the 17th century. and survives in the earliest copy of 1620. This is a translation of the Latin short Rhetoric by the German humanist Philip Melanchthon, as revised by Luke Lossius in 1577.

Its source was the "Russian Law", which dates back to the ancient tribal era of the Eastern Slavs. In the 10th century The “Russian Law” developed into a complex monument of customary law, which was used to guide the Kyiv princes in court cases. During the times of paganism, the “Russian Law” existed in oral form, passed down from memory from one generation to another (apparently, priests), which contributed to the consolidation in its language of terms, traditional formulas and phrases, which after the baptism of Rus' merged into the business language.

A descendant of St. Michael of Chernigov on the maternal side was L. N. Tolstoy.

The literature of “sovereign traitors” was continued by clerk Grigory Kotoshikhin. Having fled to Sweden, he wrote there, by order of Count Delagardie, a detailed essay on the peculiarities of the Russian political system and social life - “On Russia during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich” (1666-67). The writer speaks critically about the Moscow order. His work is a vivid document of a transitional time, testifying to a turning point in people's minds on the eve of Peter's reforms. Kotoshikhin had a sharp natural mind and literary talent, but in moral terms, apparently, he was not high. In 1667, he was executed in a suburb of Stockholm for killing his landlord in a drunken brawl.

Alexey Mikhailovich’s interest in the theater is not accidental. The monarch himself willingly took up the pen. Most of his work is occupied by monuments of the epistolary genre: official business messages, “friendly” letters, etc. With his lively participation, “The Officer of the Falconer’s Way” was created. The book continues the traditions of Western European hunting writings. It describes the rules of falconry, Alexei Mikhailovich’s favorite pastime. He also owns “The Tale of the Death of Patriarch Joseph” (1652), remarkable for its artistic expressiveness and life truthfulness, unfinished notes on the Russian-Polish war of 1654-67, church and secular poetic works, etc. Under his supervision, the famous collection was compiled laws of the Russian state - "Conciliar Code" of 1649, an exemplary monument of the Russian business language of the 17th century)

At the end of the 10th century, the literature of Ancient Rus' arose, literature on the basis of which the literature of three fraternal peoples developed - Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. Old Russian literature arose along with the adoption of Christianity and was initially called upon to serve the needs of the church: to provide church ritual, disseminate information on the history of Christianity, and educate societies in the spirit of Christianity. These tasks determined both the genre system of literature and the features of its development.

The adoption of Christianity had significant consequences for the development of books and literature in Ancient Rus'.

Old Russian literature was formed on the basis of the unified literature of the southern and eastern Slavs, which arose under the influence of Byzantine and Old Bulgarian culture.

Bulgarian and Byzantine priests who came to Rus' and their Russian students needed to translate and rewrite books that were necessary for worship. And some books brought from Bulgaria were not translated, they were read in Rus' without translation, since there was a closeness between the Old Russian and Old Bulgarian languages. Liturgical books, lives of saints, monuments of eloquence, chronicles, collections of sayings, historical and historical stories were brought to Rus'. Christianization in Rus' required a restructuring of the worldview, books about the history of the human race, about the ancestors of the Slavs were rejected, and Russian scribes needed works that would set out Christian ideas about world history and natural phenomena.

Although the need for books in the Christian state was very great, the possibilities for satisfying this need were very limited: in Rus' there were few skilled scribes, and the writing process itself was very lengthy, and the material on which the first books were written - parchment - was very expensive . Therefore, books were written only for rich people - princes, boyars and the church.

But before the adoption of Christianity, Slavic writing was known in Rus'. It was used in diplomatic (letters, contracts) and legal documents, and there was also a census between literate people.

Before the emergence of literature, there were speech genres of folklore: epic tales, mythological legends, fairy tales, ritual poetry, laments, lyrics. Folklore played a major role in the development of national Russian literature. There are known legends about fairy-tale heroes, about heroes, about the foundations of ancient capitals about Kiy, Shchek, Horeb. There was also oratory: princes spoke to soldiers and made speeches at feasts.

But literature did not begin with the recordings of folklore, although it continued to exist and develop with literature for a long time. For the emergence of literature, special reasons were needed.

The stimulus for the emergence of Old Russian literature was the adoption of Christianity, when it became necessary to acquaint Rus' with the Holy Scriptures, with the history of the church, with world history, with the lives of saints. Without liturgical books, the churches being built could not exist. And also there was a need to translate from the Greek and Bulgarian originals and distribute a large number of texts. This is what was the impetus for the creation of literature. Literature had to remain purely church, cultic, especially since secular genres existed in oral form. But in reality everything was different. Firstly, the biblical stories about the creation of the world contained a lot of scientific information about the earth, the animal world, the structure of the human body, the history of the state, that is, they had nothing to do with Christian ideology. Secondly, the chronicle, everyday stories, such masterpieces as “Tales of Igor’s Campaign”, “Teaching” by Vladimir Monomakh, “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik were left out of cult literature.

That is, the functions of literature at the time of its origin and throughout history differ.

The adoption of Christianity contributed to the rapid development of literature only for two centuries; in the future, the church did its best to hinder the development of literature.

And yet the literature of Rus' was devoted to ideological issues. The genre system reflected the worldview typical of Christian states. “Old Russian literature can be considered as literature of one theme and one plot. This plot is world history, and this theme is the meaning of human life,” - this is how in his work D. Likhachev formulated the features of the literature of the most ancient period of Russian history.

There is no doubt that the Baptism of Rus' was an event of enormous historical importance, not only politically and socially, but also culturally. The history of ancient Russian culture began after Russia adopted Christianity, and the date of the Baptism of Rus' in 988 becomes the starting point for the national-historical development of Russia.

Since the Baptism of Rus', Russian culture has continually faced a difficult, dramatic, tragic choice of its path. From the point of view of cultural studies, it is important not only to date, but also to document this or that historical event.

1.2 Periods of the history of ancient literature.

The history of ancient Russian literature cannot but be considered in isolation from the history of the Russian people and the Russian state itself. Seven centuries (XI-XVIII centuries), during which Old Russian literature developed, were full of significant events in the historical life of the Russian people. The literature of Ancient Rus' is evidence of life. History itself has established several periods of literary history.

The first period is the literature of the ancient Russian state, the period of the unity of literature. It lasts a century (XI and early XII centuries). This is the century of formation of the historical style of literature. Literature of this period developed in two centers: in the south of Kyiv and in the north of Novgorod. A characteristic feature of the literature of the first period is the leading role of Kyiv as the cultural center of the entire Russian land. Kyiv is the most important economic link on the world trade route. The Tale of Bygone Years belongs to this period.

Second period, mid-12th century. - first third of the 13th century. This is the period of the emergence of new literary centers: Vladimir Zalessky and Suzdal, Rostov and Smolensk, Galich and Vladimir Volynsky. During this period, local themes emerged in literature and different genres appeared. This is the period of the beginning of feudal fragmentation.

Next comes a short period of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. During this period, the stories “Words about the destruction of the Russian land” and “The Life of Alexander Nevsky” were created. During this period, one topic was discussed in the literature, the topic of the invasion of Mongol-Tatar troops in Rus'. This period is considered the shortest, but also the brightest.

The next period, the end of the 14th century. and the first half of the 15th century, this is a period of patriotic upsurge in literature, a period of chronicle writing and historical storytelling. This century coincides with the economic and cultural revival of the Russian land before and after the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. In the middle of the 15th century. New phenomena appear in literature: translated literature, “The Tale of Dracula”, “The Tale of Basarga” appear. All these periods, from the 13th century. to the 15th century can be combined into one period and defined as the period of feudal fragmentation and the unification of North-Eastern Rus'. Since the literature of the second period begins with the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders (1204), and when the main role of Kyiv has already ended and three fraternal peoples are formed from a single ancient Russian nation: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.

The third period is the period of literature of the Russian centralized state of the XIV - XVII centuries. When the state plays an active role in the international relations of its time, and also reflects the further growth of the Russian centralized state. And since the 17th century. a new period of Russian history begins. .

Old Russian literature began to take shape after the adoption of Christianity and at first was supposed to introduce the history of religion and contribute to its dissemination. Another important function at this stage was to educate readers in the spirit of Christian commandments. For this reason, the first works (Old Russian literature covers the period from the 11th to the 17th centuries) were mainly of an ecclesiastical nature. Gradually, stories from the lives of ordinary people began to enjoy increasing popularity, which contributed to the emergence and then increasing spread of “secular” works. Under the influence of these factors, the main genres of ancient Russian literature were formed. All of them, up to the 15th century, were united by a common approach to the events depicted: the historical basis did not allow the author's fiction.

Features of genre formation

There is an opinion that the literature of Ancient Rus' came out of Byzantine and Bulgarian literature. This statement is partly legitimate, since the system of genres among all these peoples actually has a certain similarity. However, one must keep in mind that the states at that moment were at different stages of development (Rus was significantly behind Byzantium and Bulgaria), and the authors faced different tasks. Therefore, it would be more correct to say that ancient Russian literature adopted the existing experience of the West. It was formed based on folklore and the needs of society. The genres of Old Russian literature were specified depending on the practical purpose and were divided into primary and unifying. In general, they represented a dynamic system that responded vividly to any changes in society.

Primary genres of ancient Russian literature

These included a life, a teaching, a word, a story, a chronicle story or legend, a weather record, and a church legend. The first four are the most famous.

A hagiography is a work containing a story about the lives of saints. It was perceived as a model of morality that should be imitated, and was built according to certain canons. The classical hagiography contained the story of birth (usually a begged child) and pious life, a description of miracles associated with the hero, and glorification of the saint. One of the most famous works of this genre was “The Life of Saints Gleb and Boris,” written in a harsh time for the country. The images of the princes were supposed to contribute to unification in a common fight against the invaders.

A later version was “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself.” Perceived more as a variant of autobiography, it is interesting because it presents a picture of public life during the period of the schism of the church.

Genres of Old Russian literature also include teachings that contained rules of human behavior regardless of his position. They had a powerful educational impact on the reader and touched on various areas of life. The most famous teaching was compiled by Vladimir Monomakh and addressed to the youth. Its contents are fully consistent with Christian commandments, and therefore were perceived as a book of life for posterity.

Old Russian eloquence was fully manifested in such a genre as the word. It could have different directions. An example of a solemn work is “The Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, written at the beginning of the 11th century in connection with the construction of military fortifications in Kyiv. This is the glorification of Russian princes and the Russian state, which are in no way inferior to the powerful Byzantium and its rulers.

The pinnacle of this genre was the work about the campaign of the Russian prince against the Polovtsians.

"The Tale of Igor's Campaign"

Despite ongoing controversy regarding the authenticity and authorship of this work, it was absolutely groundbreaking for its time. Any genres of ancient Russian literature, as already noted, had certain canons. “The Word...” is significantly different from them. It includes lyrical digressions, a violation of chronology in the narrative (the action is either transferred to the past or directed to the present), and inserted elements. The means of representation are also unconventional, many of which are correlated with elements of folklore. Many researchers put “The Word...” on a par with the early feudal epic works of different peoples. In essence, this is a poem about the courage and perseverance of soldiers, an expression of grief for the dead, a call for the need to unite all Russian princes and lands. In addition, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” allows us to evaluate the place and role of the state in international history.

Uniting

There are also unifying genres of ancient Russian literature. All readers are familiar with examples of the chronicle. This also includes the chety-menaion (“reading by month”, included stories about saints), a chronograph (description of events of the 15th and 16th centuries) and a patericon (about the life of the holy fathers). These genres are called unifying (introduced by D. S. Likhachev), since they can include life, teaching, speech, etc.

Chronicle

The greatest attention, of course, deserves works in which a record was kept of the events that took place over the years, which could be of a general nature or be more specific: with details, dialogues, etc.

The chronicle as a genre of ancient Russian literature began to take shape presumably already at the end of the 10th century. But the actual work of this genre took shape under Yaroslav the Wise.

At the beginning of the 12th century, based on the available records, the monk Nestor, who lived in the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, compiled the “Tale of Bygone Years.” Its events cover a long period: from the origin of the Slavic tribes to the present. A laconic and expressive description allows, after several centuries, to present the history of the formation and development of the Russian state.

Tale

This genre of ancient Russian literature was based on translations of Byzantine and folklore works and is the most studied to date. The stories were divided into:

• military - in the center is a historical figure and an important battle (“The Tale of the Battle of the Kalka River”);
• satirical - about socially significant problems, often in the nature of parodies (“The Tale of Shemyakin’s Court”);
• household - (“The Tale of Woe-Misfortune”).

The pinnacle was “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom,” which is called the hymn of fidelity and love.

Walkings (or walks) were also popular in Rus', first telling about the journeys of pilgrims to the holy land (“The Walking of Hegumen Daniel”), and later, in connection with the development of trade, about the trips of merchants. This was a story about what was seen with my own eyes.

The system created by the 17th century, which included various genres of ancient Russian literature, marked the transition to the literature of modern times.