Exodus subject. Comments on "What was the Exodus?"

Ancient Egypt Maria Pavlovna Zgurskaya

Exodus from Egypt. If so, when?

In the context of chronological confusion and “who is who” confusion, determining the possible time of the exodus of the Jews from Egypt takes on significant significance. If the arrival of Jacob’s family went unnoticed due to the small number of those who came, then the movement of an entire people (not entirely peaceful) should somehow be indicated. How is the Exodus dated in scientific literature? In fact, academic science, in principle, does not date the Exodus; it does not know reliable archaeological evidence of the presence of the ancient Jews in Egypt and their departure from there. Egyptian sources remain completely silent on this matter. The exodus is recorded only in the Torah, where it is dated to the time of “Pharaoh who did not know Joseph.” Since Joseph is not known in any chronicle of the Egyptian pharaohs, this pharaoh could be anyone from the thirty pharaonic dynasties.

This is a serious problem, since the reliability of the Bible as a source of information is at stake (about the Egyptians, Hyksos, Jews - not so important). In essence, from this point the countdown of Jewish history begins (as a real, not a mythical people). Without its dating, its entire chronology hangs in the air.

Most historians, while admitting that they do not have definitive proof of the reality of the Exodus, still agree that the Exodus is a genuine event. But in terms of dating, there is a discrepancy of several centuries. Typically this is a time period ranging from the reign of Queen Hatshepsut (about 1500 BC) to Ramses II (1317–1251 BC, according to other sources, 1292–1234 BC .) and his successor Mernept. Manetho and the Alexandrian Stoic philosopher Chaeremon, who lived in the 1st century AD. e., in their writings they show Moses and Joseph, who led the Jews expelled from Egypt during the reign of Amenophis (probably meaning Pharaoh Amenmes) and his son Ramesses, and the writer of the 1st century BC. e. Lasimachus mentions the name of Pharaoh Bokhoris (aka Manefta, Marneptah, Merenptah), who ruled at the beginning of the 14th century BC. e.

Josephus does not agree with them, stating the following: “It remains for me to make several objections to him (Manetho) regarding Moses, whom the Egyptians consider an extraordinary and divine man; Wanting to consider him theirs, they pass him off as one of the priests removed from the city of Heliopolis due to leprosy. Meanwhile, it is clear from the monuments that he (Moses) was born 518 years earlier and led our ancestors to the country we now occupy. That he did not suffer from any such bodily ailment follows from his own decrees: he forbids lepers to stay in the city or live in the countryside, but orders them to leave, tearing their outer clothing, into the desert, and considers everyone who touched them or was with them under one roof of the unclean” (Lev 13:14).

Although there are serious disagreements among researchers regarding the determination of the time of the possible Exodus, the majority is still inclined to believe that this event occurred in the second half of the 13th century BC. e. Moses may have only been born under Ramesses II. The fact is that all the information we have about the Jews in Egypt is contained in the few random records cited above, carved on the monuments. They mention the Habiru, perhaps they are identical to the Jews. And such records can be attributed to this time.

Ramesses II sought to restore Egyptian power by conquering Asia. The Nile Delta, together with the land of Goshen, was most suitable for him as a military base for expeditions to the east. In addition, Ramesses considered the Nile Delta to be his immediate ancestral domain, since his family came from the area around Avaris. His father’s name was Seti, and etymologically his name is connected with the name of the god Set (Sutekh, whom the Hyksos wanted to make the main deity) revered in this part. And he decided to move to the Delta and build there, on the site of the devastated Avaris, a new capital - the city of Raamses (later known as Tanis). In preparation for the aggressive campaign, the pharaoh also built another city - Pithom, or Pithom (both of these names are mentioned in the text of the Bible as produced by the slave labor of the Jews), which essentially consisted of warehouses for provisions and military ammunition.

With the advent of Ramesses, the idyllic isolation of the land of Goshen ended. To implement construction plans, conceived on a large scale, Ramesses needed workers. The order to kill newborns, which is mentioned in the Bible, perhaps indicates that over time, the persecution of Jews acquired bloody, cruel forms. It is assumed that the reason for it was the fertility of the Israelites and the overpopulation of the Delta after the central administration with countless officials, courtiers and military personnel was located there. It also follows from the Bible that many Jews at that time could not support themselves by raising livestock and were forced to move to cities, where they engaged in small trade and crafts. This process becomes clearer in the example of Moses, who was born at a time when the order to kill newborns was in force.

With all this, Ramesses II was an outstanding pharaoh, and Egypt during his reign reached the pinnacle of its great power. Therefore, it is doubtful that the Israelites would be able to free themselves during the lifetime of this pharaoh. In the words “After a long time the king of Egypt died” (Exodus 2:23) there is quite possibly a hidden hint that Moses returned to Egypt after the accession to the throne of Pharaoh Mernept, the successor of Ramesses P.

In the text of the Bible we find two mysterious passages that provide a lot of material for thought on the problem that interests us. In Exodus 3:21, God says, “And I will give this people favor in the sight of the Egyptians; and when you go, you will not go empty-handed. Each woman will beg from her neighbor and from the woman living in her house for silver and gold and clothing; and you will dress your sons and your daughters with them, and you will rob the Egyptians.” And further (12:36) in the same book we read: “The Lord gave mercy to his people in the eyes of the Egyptians; and they gave to him, and he robbed the Egyptians.”

Some scholars conclude from this that the Israelis rebelled, expropriated valuables in Egyptian houses and went abroad. This assumption is supported by the fact that during their wanderings in the desert they fought victorious battles. Consequently, they had to leave Egypt armed and provided with supplies.

During the reign of Mernept, Egypt had to defend its western border from Libyan raids, and from the east it was attacked by Indo-European peoples who left their homes in the Balkans, invaded Asia Minor, crushed the Hittite state and occupied the Mediterranean coast. True, Mernepta emerged victorious from the battles with the aggressors, but Egypt was so weakened that for a long period it was unable to restore its power. In all likelihood, the Israelites took advantage of his temporary weakness to free themselves from slavery.

There are other reasons to date the Exodus to the second half of the 13th century BC. e. Archaeologists have managed to unearth the ruins of Canaanite cities, captured, according to the Bible, by the Israelites under the leadership of Joshua, the successor of Moses. In those layers of excavations that date back to the second half of the 13th century BC. e., traces of fires and deliberate devastation were found - clear evidence of rapid conquest. Moses asked the king of Edom to allow the Israelites free passage through his territory, which he was refused. However, Moses did not dare to use violence, since Edom was a powerful military state, and decided to go around its borders. Thanks to archaeological discoveries, we know that in the 14th century BC. e. Edom did not yet exist and, as a well-organized and powerful state, it entered the arena of history only in the 13th century BC. e. This means that the Israelis could have appeared on its border precisely in this, the 13th century, not earlier.

There is, however, a serious gap in this calculation. Doubts arose in connection with the excavation of Jericho, the fortress allegedly captured by Joshua. The British expedition confirmed that Jericho was indeed destroyed by the aggressors, but the ashes and broken parts of buildings were located in a layer that dates back to the 14th, and not the 13th, century BC. e. The date was established on the basis of scarabs found and characteristic designs on ceramic shards. Scientists have come to considerable confusion: on the one hand, excavations in the ancient Edomite state and historical data about Egypt indicate that the Exodus occurred in the 13th century BC. e., and on the other hand, new data appeared that Jericho fell a whole century earlier. Perhaps the Israelis did not conquer this mighty fortress? True, scarabs were valuable family treasures; they were inherited from father to sons and can hardly serve as a basis for accurate dating.

However, many scholars believe that the period of enslavement and oppression of the Jews in Egypt, ending with the Exodus, dates back to an earlier period, namely the century before the reign of Ramesses II. This school connects Akhenaten’s religious revolution with the influence that communication with Jews faithful to the idea of monotheism should have had on the consciousness and worldview of the Egyptians. According to supporters of this version, just during the period when the original religion of the Egyptians was restored, the Jews were subjected to severe persecution. Thus, the persecution of the Jews should be seen as part of a general policy aimed at eradicating the heresy of Akhenaten.

Other Egyptologists date the period of oppression and enslavement even earlier, namely to the century preceding the reign of Akhenaten, which was marked by the reign of Thutmose III (1503–1449 BC). This group of scientists believes that it was Thutmose III who was the very pharaoh during whose reign the Jews living in Egypt were subjected to severe persecution. They link the Exodus from Egypt to the movement of the Habiru during the construction of the Tel Amarna complex. In their opinion, inscriptions carved on stone discovered on the Sinai Peninsula confirm this theory.

If we rely on the text of the Bible, then the preferable version is the one that connects the Exodus with the reign of Thutmose III, who destroyed almost all reminders of the time of the regency of his mother, Queen Hatshepsut, whose possible adopted son Moses was considered. The fact is that the Book of Kings says: “In the four hundred and eightieth year after the children of Israel came out of the land of Egypt. In the fourth year of Solomon’s reign over Israel...he began to build the temple of the Lord.” The date of Solomon's accession is usually considered to be 972 BC. e. (according to other sources - 1015 BC). You should also pay attention to the book “The Acts of the Apostles” (13:18, 20:21): “And for about forty years he fed them in the wilderness... After this, about four hundred and fifty years, he gave them judges until the prophet Samuel. Then they asked for a king, and God gave them Saul [the predecessor of Solomon’s father, King David], the son of Kishov, a husband from the tribe of Benjamin: so forty years passed.”

There is a serious reason that forces some scholars to abandon the generally accepted position that it was Ramesses II who was the enslaving pharaoh, namely the fact that the name Israel appears in the so-called “Mernepta inscription.” This inscription, discovered in 1896, is a victory song for Pharaoh Mernept, detailing his conquests in Canaan. Listing his other conquests, he boasts that “Canaan (Canaan) was conquered along with all evil, Ashkelon was carried away captive, Gezer was taken by storm, Jenoam was destroyed, Isiraal was devastated, and his descendants no longer exist.”

Scientists who adhere to the version that the enslaving pharaoh is Thutmose III believe that the phrase “Isiraal is devastated” indicates that during this period the Jews already lived in Canaan and owned a significant part of the territory of this country. On this basis, they suggest that the Exodus took place long before the reign of Mernept. But such serious conclusions cannot be based on one inscription, which, moreover, allows for various interpretations. The words “Israal is devastated” do not necessarily mean “Israel is devastated” and should be considered as a general conclusion, completing the list of victories in Ashkelon, Gezer and Yenoam, from which it should follow that all these places were under Jewish control before the Egyptian invasion. The word "Isiraal" is not the same phonetic structure as the word "Israel" and may equally refer to both the people of Israel and the valley of Israel, and therefore the phrase "Isiraal is devastated" may be the story of Pharaoh Mernept's conquest of that valley . Some scholars associate this phrase with the capture of Ashkelon and Gezer and view it as Mernept's statement about the conquest of territories considered part of the region of Jezreel. Thus, there is no serious reason to revise the generally accepted opinion that the pharaoh of the period of enslavement was Ramesses II, and his son Merneptha was the ruler who witnessed the Exodus of the Jews from Egypt.

Some researchers, based on supposed historical data, argue that the Jews were never in Egypt at all, and, therefore, there could be no period of enslavement and oppression of the Jewish people and the subsequent Exodus. But it seems doubtful that any people would invent a story about the enslavement, oppression and humiliation of their ancestors in a foreign country. For the entire existence of mankind, not a single nation is known that would attribute to itself a humiliating past.

After the reign of Mernept, Egypt experienced successive periods of decline and ceased to be the center of the civilized world in the eyes of other peoples. This makes it even less likely that in a later period a legend about an entire people being enslaved in Egypt could have arisen. Oxford professor Peter Pitt, based on his research, comes to the conclusion: “No historian can doubt that the people of Israel were in difficult conditions in Egypt. The legend of the difficulties experienced by the Jewish people in the early stages of its formation reflects such a humiliating and helpless state of people that it could never have arisen if it had not been a reflection of real events.”

As you can see, all kinds of theories regarding the origin of the Hyksos, their connections and possible identification with the Jewish and other peoples are enough for more than one book. But, as often happens, quantity does not mean quality - the Hyksos still remain a mystery, a mystery not only of Egyptian, but also of world history...

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Work plan.

I. Introduction

II. Main part

1. Structure of the book of Exodus.

2. Description of the structure.

B. Description of the brief structure.

III. Conclusion. Conclusion

Introduction.

When examining the structure of the book of Exodus, we find two types of structure.

Main part.

A. More detailed structure of the book of Exodus.

I. Exit from Egypt (1:1 - 15:21)

A. Sojourn in Egypt (1:1-21)

b. Moses prepares for leadership (2:1 - 4:31)

V. Ten Plagues and Exodus (5:1 - 13:16)

g. From Egypt to Sinai (13:17 - 19:2)

II. Israel at Sinai (19:3 - 40:38)

A. Proclamation of the Decalogue (19:3 - 20:21)

b. Book of the Testament (20:22 - 23:33)

V. Establishment of the covenant (24:1-18)

d. Instructions concerning the tabernacle and its equipment (25:1 - 31:17)

e. Moses was given two tablets of stone (31:18)

f. Apostasy and Covenant Renewal (32:1 - 34:35)

and. Construction of the Tabernacle (35:1 - 40:38)

B. Brief structure of the book of Exodus.

1. Calling (Israel in Egypt) - 1-12.36

2. Deliverance (Exodus from Egypt) - 12, 37-18,27

3. Making a covenant (Israel at Sinai) - 19-40

Description of the structure.

Description of a more detailed structure.

This structure is based on the SDA biblical commentary and it contains detailed points from the book of Exodus.

I.Version 1:1 15:21.

A. Sojourn in Egypt 1:1-22.

The conjunction “and” that begins the first text connects the book of Exodus with the previous narrative from the book of Genesis, and what is said in the first text suggests the migration of the Israelites to Egypt. The list of names of the sons of Jacob (2-5), and the death of Joseph in verse 6. Verse 7 says that the number of Jews began to grow rapidly; verse 8 talks about the rise of a new Pharaoh to power, who did not know Joseph. The Growth and Oppression of the Children of Israel in Egypt 1:7-22.

B. Moses prepares to become a leader 2:1 to 4:31.

The second chapter begins with the birth and preparation of Moses. This beginning is necessary in order to prepare the ground for the description of his subsequent actions (11 to 17). Chapter two tells how Moses ended up in the wilderness, which prepares us for the events described in chapter three. Spiritual preparations are described in the third chapter, which tells how the Lord appeared to him at Mount Horeb. Account of Moses' hesitation: first he realizes his worthlessness 3:11. Then he says that the people will not want to listen to him 4:1, that he lacks eloquence 4:10, and, in the end, refuses 4:13. After the majestic revelation received at Sinai, the gracious signs of God 4:2-12. Moses returns to Egypt and, first of all, convinces the people of the need for Exodus 4:30-31

B. Ten plagues and exodus 5:1 - 13:16.

Moses and Aaron come to Pharaoh, who does not want to listen to them 5:2, and oppresses the people even more 5:16-19. The "overseers of the children of Israel" complain to Moses and Aaron 5:20-23. Then the Lord renews His promises, revealing Himself under the name Jehovah, Almighty God the Redeemer, the people do not want to listen to Moses, who resorts to the Lord 6:1-13. In 6:14-26, genealogy is included in the narrative. Moses received final instructions regarding what he should say to Pharaoh 6:27-30. At the beginning of chapter 7 (7:1-7), God's plan is outlined for the last time and at the end it is mentioned how old Moses and Aaron were. Miracle of the Rod 7:8-13. Ulcers: blood 7:14-25, toads 8:1-15, midges 8:16-19, dog flies 8:20-32, pestilence 9:1-7, boils 9:8-12, hail 9:13- 35, locusts 10:1-20, darkness 10:21-27, the firstborn killed chapter 11.

The Lord establishes the Passover and the Feast of Unleavened Bread forever. Moses' announcement to the elders of Israel of the commandment of the Lord 12:1-28. The defeat of the firstborn of Egypt: the beginning of the exodus on Passover night 12:29-51. Sanctification of all the firstborn in Israel 13:1-16.

D. From Egypt to Sinai 13:17 - 19:2.

This section begins at 13:17-19 with a general reference to the Israelites leaving Egypt and explaining why they went through the desert to the Red Sea. Then, they point out the first stops of chapter 20, and talk about God's leading 21-22. 14:1-14 tells us that the Lord commanded Moses to follow specific, clearly explained routes. The crossing of the Red Sea is a short, unified narrative. First, Moses announces God's coming salvation 14:13-14. And then comes God's command verses 16 - 18. Moses fulfills it, Israel crosses the sea without loss, and the Egyptians drown. After this, Israel believed in the Lord (chapter 31). Song of Moses (chapter 15), which focuses on miracles 8,10. After his song, Moses gives a short song to Miriam 15:20-21. Israel walks through the desert and Moses makes the waters of Marah sweet. In response to the Israelites' grumbling, God gives them food: its description and command regarding it 16:1-36. Israel cried out and God gives water from the rock using the rod of Moses 17:1-7. The next test was when Amalek attacked the Israelites and was defeated 17:8-16. Jethro visits Moses and offers burnt offerings 18:1-12. And by the advice of Jethro, Moses appoints judges over Israel 18:13-27. 19:1-2 tells of Israel's arrival at Mount Sinai.

II.Synopsis 19:3 40:38.

A. Proclamation of Decalogue 19:3 - 20:21.

As soon as Israel set up camp at the foot of the mountain, Moses ascended Sinai and God gave him the necessary instructions to prepare for the conclusion of the Covenant. The Lord first told Moses that He intended to make the Israelites a special people 19:4-9. And then he commanded to prepare the people to receive revelation 19:10-15. The preparation was to receive the consecration (verse 15) and draw a circle around the congregation. Moses did everything according to the Lord’s command, and on the first day, in the morning, the Lord descended onto the Mountain (verse 20), which smoked and trembled. Then, Moses went down to the people (verse 25). At 20:1-8 the decalogue is spoken. “When they saw the thunder and the flames and the sound of the trumpet and the smoking mountain,” the people were afraid. Moses calms the people 20:18-21

B. Book of the Covenant 20:22 - 23:33.

God gives laws regarding sacrificial altars 20:22-26. Civil Law 21:1-27. This section consists of "courts" that must provide political order for the formation of a civil state. 21:28-36 sets out the ruling regarding physical injury caused by someone's negligence. In 22:1-4 about theft, 22:5-6 - harming someone else's field, 22:7-15 - dishonesty, 22:16-17 - deception, 22:18-31 - and other laws. 23:1-13 deals with the protection of rights, 23:14-19 - ceremonial proof, 23:20-33 - the Lord's attitude towards His people.

C. Establishment of the covenant 24:1-18.

It tells about the confirmation of the covenant.

D. Instructions concerning the tabernacle and its furnishings 25:1 - 31:17.

The order of presentation is as follows: introduction, in which the people are commanded to make offerings for the sanctuary 25:1-19, description of the ark, the throne of the Lord in the sanctuary (verses 10-22), table of showbread, lampstand (verses 23-40), description of the tabernacle ( chapter 26), altar of burnt offering, court of the tabernacle 27:1-10, confirmation of the priesthood and order of consecration (chapters 28-29), description of the altar of incense and its use 30:1-10, various laws concerning the ministry 30:11 - 31: 17.

D. Two tablets of stone were given to Moses 31:18.

Moses receives the two tablets of the Law.

E. Apostasy and covenant renewal 32:1 - 34:35.

While Moses experienced the joy of spiritual triumph, God's people fell spiritually 32:1-6. The wrath of Moses and the jealousy of the Levites 32:7-30. Moses' intercession for idolaters, although they still must be punished 32:31-35. Chapter 33 talks about Moses pitching his tent outside the camp 33:1-11, praying for the transgression of the people and that God remained with the people 33:12-17. The Lord reveals His glory to Moses 33:18-23. In chapter 34, the Lord calls Moses to the mountain where he has fellowship with God 34:1-11. The Lord renews the Covenant and His commands again 34:12-27. Moses comes down from the mountain with the tablets and a shining face 34:28-35.

G. Construction of the tabernacle 35:1 - 40:38.

Construction of the Tabernacle and Priestly Robes (chapters 35 - 39). In 40:1-33, it is said that Moses sets up the tabernacle, sanctifies through the anointing of the priests and offers the first sacrifices 40:24-38. The Cloud of the Lord arrives at the tabernacle.

Description of the brief structure.

1. Calling (Israel in Egypt) - 1-12.36

Slavery 1:1-22

Birth and calling of Moses 2:14,17

Return of Moses and first meeting with Pharaoh 4:18 - 6:30

First six plagues 7:1-10:29

10 Plagues and the Passover Lamb 11:1- 12:36

2. Deliverance (Exodus from Egypt) - 12, 37-18,27

Exodus and prescriptions 12:37 -13:22

Israel's crossing of the Red Sea 14:1-38

Moses' Victory Song 15:1 - 21:7

Transition to Sinai 15:22 - 18:27

3. Making a covenant (Israel at Sinai) - 19-40

Law and Union 19 - 24

Worship and Priesthood 25 - 31

Falling away from God (golden calf) 32-33

Renewal of the Union34

Construction of the Tabernacle 35 - 40

Bibliography:

1. Seventh-day Adventist Bible Commentary, Vol.1, 1978.

2. "Interpretation of the Old Testament books. From the book of Genesis to the book of Ruth", Bible Department, 1992.

3. Eric Nystram, "Bible Dictionary", St. Petersburg, 1992.

4. E. Eby, "A Brief Introduction to the Bible."

Introduction.

In Hebrew, the title of this book is "Yelle Shemot" ("These are the names"), being identical to its first two words. This name is also found in the abbreviated form “Shemot” (“Names”). The Russian name "Exodus" corresponds to the Septuagint. The Exodus from Egypt is described in the book at 13:17 - 15:21.

Author.

Exodus was written by Moses during some period of his stay at Mount Sinai, or shortly after that. The Bible itself unequivocally testifies to this fact. Thus, it is clear from the Bible that Moses was able to accomplish such a task (“And Moses was taught all the wisdom of the Egyptians,” Acts 7:22). The Book of Exodus leaves no doubt about the authorship of Moses. God ordered Moses to record the military conflict between Israel under the command of Joshua and the Amalekites (“Write this in a book for remembrance”; Ex. 17:14).

In addition, Moses wrote down everything that the Lord spoke to him at Sinai (And Moses wrote all the words of the Lord; Ex. 24:4). These records of his were called the “Books of the Covenant” (24:7). On Mount Sinai, the Lord said to Moses: “Write these words for yourself” (34:27), and Moses “wrote on the tablets the words of the covenant, the ten words” (34:28).

The authorship of Moses is also evidenced by what we read in other parts of the Pentateuch. Deuteronomy 31:9 says that “Moses wrote this law and gave it to the priests.” Equally convincing are the words from Deuteronomy 31:24, “Moses wrote in the book all the words of this law, even to the end.”

In other books of the Old Testament we also find confirmation that the author of the Exodus was Moses. Thus, David commanded Solomon to obey God’s decrees and decrees, “as it is written in the law of Moses” (1 Kings 2:3). Ezra read from “the book of the law of Moses” (Neh. 8:1). In addition, the Pentateuch was called “the book of Moses” (Neh. 13:1).

Time to write.

In 1 Samuel 6:1 the period of time between the exodus of the Jews and the beginning of the construction of the temple by Solomon (he began building it in the fourth year of his reign) is determined to be 480 years. Since the fourth year of Solomon's reign falls in 966 BC, the exodus must have occurred in 1446. Moreover, by the time of Jephthah (approximately 1100 B.C.), Israel had already been in the Promised Land for 300 years (Judg. 11:26). If we add to 300 years 40 years of stay in the desert and some time required to conquer Heshbon, it turns out that the exodus took place in the middle of the 15th century BC.

Archaeological evidence from this period in Egypt is consistent with what is recorded in the book of Exodus. For example, Thutmose IV became the heir of his father Amenhotep II, although he was not his eldest son (the “firstborn” of Amenhotep II was killed by the Lord on the night of the first Passover, Ex. 12:29). It is known that at the beginning of his reign, Amenhotep II (1450-1425 BC) suppressed uprisings of the dissatisfied in his kingdom; that the Semites were forced to make bricks (compare 5:7-18); that several Egyptian pharaohs from the 18th dynasty (approximately 1567-1379) built a lot and actively in the north of the country. Since the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty very often waged war in Palestine, it becomes clear why they placed military garrisons and built “cities for supplies” (1:11) in the Delta region: they needed this to facilitate movement between the Syro-Palestinian settlements and Egypt.

In addition, the events that took place in Palestine around 1400 BC correspond to the conquests led by Joshua. Archaeological evidence suggests that Jericho, Ain and Hazor were destroyed around 1400. One of the scientists comes to the following conclusion: “All the remains of material culture discovered on the territory of Palestine say the same thing as the data known from the literature: the mentioned conquests took place precisely at the time about which biblical historians definitely testify” (Bruce K. Woltke ).

It took the Israelites exactly three months to cross from Egypt to the Sinai desert (Exodus 19:1-2). It is logical to think that Moses composed his book while they were camped there or shortly thereafter (1446 BC). It is also logical that what is described in it begins at some point before the birth of Moses in 1526 (chapter 2) and continues until the events that took place in the vicinity of Mount Sinai.

Purpose of writing.

The central events of the book of Exodus are the miraculous liberation of Israel from Egyptian slavery and the formation by God of a state with a theocratic government under the leadership of Moses. This government was carried out through the new “constitution” of the Mosaic covenant (19:3-19). Junger notes:

"The Book of Exodus aims to focus on the great act of deliverance of the descendants of Jacob and the establishment of them into a theocratic state located at Mount Sinai. God, who until then was connected with Israel only through His covenant with Abraham, which He confirmed to Isaac and Jacob, now draws Israel to Himself as a people by delivering them from slavery, treating them as the chosen people through whom the Redeemer is to appear, Jehovah, moreover, binds them to Himself with the bonds of the Mosaic covenant and dwells among them under the cover of the cloud of glory."

Thus, the exodus is the link between the origin of the people, which is the promise given by God to Abraham (Gen. 12:2), and the beginning of the theocratic statehood of this people under the rule of Moses. The people who received the promise were miraculously delivered from slavery and "placed" under the Mosaic covenant that they might become a "holy nation" (Ex. 19:6) and pave the way for the blessing of the Gentiles (Gen. 12:3; cf. “I will make you... a light for the Gentiles,” Isa. 42:6). So, two things are emphasized in the book of Exodus: redemption and dedication.

Historical setting.

1. History of Egypt before the exodus of the Jews. Ancient Egypt extended over a distance of approximately 900 km. from Assouan (ancient Siena), the first cataract on the Nile River, north towards the Mediterranean Sea. Its territory included the narrow Nile Valley (from Aswan to Memphis) and the Delta, a vast triangle stretching from Memphis to the sea.

South of Assouan lay the ancient land of Kush. The name "Egypt" is of Greek and Latin origin, but its roots go back to the ancient word Hakuptaa, the original name of Memphis, the capital city located immediately north of Cairo. In those days when Memphis was the capital, foreigners called the whole country by its name. And the local population called it otherwise “Tameri”, which means “beloved land”, or “Kemet” - “black country”, paying tribute to the fertile soil along the banks of the Nile.

The history of ancient Egypt is divided by scientists into three periods: predynastic (approximately 3500-3100 BC), the period of the first dynasties (approximately 3100-2686 BC) and dynastic (2686-332 BC). . X.).

During the predynastic period, the rural population living along the banks of the Nile became increasingly sedentary. The emerging civilizations of Upper (southern) and Lower (northern) Egypt were united by Narmer, the first pharaoh of upper Egypt. This unification marked the beginning of the period of the first dynasties. There were two of them.

The dynastic period lasted from 2686 until the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great in 332. 29 dynasties ruled the country during this period.

The time of the 3rd-6th dynasties (about 2686-2181 BC) was characterized by rapid progress in the field of culture and technology. During these centuries, called the Old Kingdom period, the great pyramids were built and the pharaohs, absolute monarchs, ruled from Memphis with an iron fist.

The first transition period (dynasties 7-11; 2181-1991) corresponded to a time of decline. Then came the Middle Kingdom period (Dynasty 12; approximately 1991-1786), when the country expanded its borders and moved the capital to the city of Thebes. Centralized rule was again restored under Amenemphet I, the founder of the flourishing 12th Dynasty. This was the “golden age” of Egypt, when arts and crafts flourished again and the well-being of the population increased. And in this happy era, Joseph appeared in Egypt, becoming the prime minister of Pharaoh, and after him Jacob and his sons came there (1876 BC; Gen. 46:6).

The second transition period (around 1786-1567) corresponded to the reign of the 13th-17th dynasties. During the 13th and 14th dynasties, Egypt began to decline again. And during the 15th and 16th dynasties, the country was conquered by the Hyksos, a people of Semitic-Asian origin. Thanks to their military technology, which was superior to that of Egypt (the Hyksos were armed with iron chariots and Asian bows), they owned Egyptian land for a century and a half and ruled it from Averis, located in the Nile Delta. But gradually the Hyksos began to be pushed back, and this began around 1600, when Seqeneir II, Prince of Thebes, rebelled. What happened to the descendants of Jacob under the Hyksos is not entirely clear.

Under Ahmose I, who ruled in Thebes, the period of the New Kingdom began (circa 1567-1220; 18-19 dynasties), which was destined to become one of the most brilliant periods in the history of Egypt. Egypt became a great power whose influence extended beyond the Euphrates River. During the 18th dynasty, the events described in the book of Exodus took place. This was the time when a new wave of Egyptian nationalism began to erode the previously tolerant attitude towards foreigners characteristic of the Hyksos.

For defensive purposes, the Egyptians began to create an empire and pushed their borders deeper into Palestine. Apparently not wanting to completely eradicate the Semitic population that had already settled in Egypt, the pharaohs turned the Semites into their slaves and began to use their labor in the construction of defense facilities and royal palaces.

2. History of Egypt shortly before the exodus of the Jews. Amenhotep I ruled under newly centralized power from 1546 to 1526. (in fact, this centralization began under his father Ahmose I). Amenhotep was succeeded by his son Thutmose I, who reigned from approximately 1526 to 1512. Moses was born during his reign (around 1526) or at the end of the reign of Amenhotep I. The famous daughter of Thutmose I, Hatshepsut, may have been the princess who found Moses in the thickets of the Nile reeds. When Thutmose I's son, Thutmose II (1512-1504), died, power passed to Thutmose III. Since he was too young, Hatshepsut became the de facto ruler under him (in 1503). She remained the “co-ruler” of Thutmose III until 1482.

During the brilliant reign of Hatshepsut, Egypt prospered. It was during this time that Moses spent his youth at the royal court. But after Hatshepsut's death in 1482, Thutmose III ruled alone until 1450. The pharaoh, who did not like Hatshepsut, not only abolished her court, but also tried to erase her name from most monuments in Egypt. It was probably at that time that Moses fled from the now unfriendly royal entourage to Media. And Thutmose III became the mighty builder of his empire, within whose borders Syria was included.

The heir of Thutmose III was Amenhotep II (1450-1425), who was the “pharaoh of the exodus” (1446). It seems that, unlike his conquering father, Amenhotep II even ceded some Egyptian lands because he was unable to carry out significant military campaigns. And perhaps his weak fighting ability was explained by the fact that he left all his chariots, or most of them, in the waters of the Red Sea.

On the so-called “Dream Stella,” dating back to the time of Thutmose IV, it is recorded that the god Harem-akht told him, the young prince, in a dream that the day would come when he would become king. If Thutmose IV was the eldest son of the pharaoh, he would not need to confirm his right to succession to the throne. It is logical, therefore, to assume that he was one of the younger sons of Amenhotep II. And this corresponds to what is recorded in Ex. 12:29 that Pharaoh's eldest son died on the night of Israel's first Passover.

So, Thutmose III was the pharaoh under whom the Jews were brutally oppressed, and Amenhotep II was the pharaoh under whom they left Egypt.

The history of Egypt after the New Kingdom period and up to the conquest of the country by the Greeks falls into the periods of the Late New Kingdom (20th dynasty; about 1200-1085), the Third Intermediate (1085-663; dynasties 21-25) and the Late Period (663). -332; dynasties 26-31).

3. Place of origin. There is much debate about the path Israel followed when leaving Egypt. The matter is complicated by the inaccurate translation of the Hebrew "yam sup" as the Red Sea (Red Sea), instead of the "sea of papyri" or the Sea of Reeds. This place is located somewhere between the Gulf of Suez and the Mediterranean Sea, on the line of the modern Suez Canal, where there are many marshy lagoons and lakes.

There are two points of view regarding the possible location of the outcome. Supporters of the "northern point of view" place it in the lagoon near the Mediterranean Sea, and supporters of the "southern" (or central) point of view - south of Succoth, "placing" it near Lake Balah or Lake Timsah.

God was leading Israel away from the well-known and fortified trade route that extended north, away from “the road of the land of the Philistines” (13:17); He led them into the desert so as not to encounter Egyptian soldiers.

Proponents of the "northern view" believe that Mount Sinai was located in the vicinity of Kadesh-barnea. Available evidence, however, suggests that we are talking about Mount Sinai in the southern part of the peninsula.

After all, the Israelites left Ramses and went to Succoth, traveling about 50 kilometers to the southeast (Ex. 12:37; Num. 33:5). Near Succoth, they were miraculously delivered from the army of Amenhotep II, which was pursuing them in chariots. The “southern point of view” is also supported by the fact that the desert of Shur (Ex. 15:22), where Israel found itself after crossing the Red Sea, is located directly east of Succoth. And one more thing: strong eastern winds could have affected the water in lakes Balakh and Timsakh exactly as described in 14:21.

Book outline:

I. Delivering God's People from Egypt (Chapters 1-18)

A. Israel's Oppression in Egypt (Chapter 1)

1. The environment in which the events took place; Israel and Egypt (1:1-7)

2. Oppression: Israel under the Pharaohs (1:8-22)

B. Israel's Liberator (chapters 2-4)

1. Birth of Moses in Egypt; he is under the protection of Pharaoh's daughter (2:1-16)

2. Flight of Moses to the land of Midian (2:11 - 4:17)

B. Return of Moses to Egypt (4:18-31) C. Moses' struggle with the Egyptian Pharaoh (5:1 - 12:36)

1. Moses' encounters with Pharaoh (5:1 - 7:13)

2. Ten judgments of God over Egypt (7:14 - 12:36)

D. Deliverance of Israel from Egypt (12:37 - 18:27)

1. Quick transition through the territory of Egypt towards the sea (12:37 - 13:22)

2. Crossing the Red Sea (chapter 14)

3. Song of Moses and Miriam about deliverance (15:1-21)

4. Transition to Mount Sinai (15:22 - 18:27)

II. Revelation to God's people at Sinai (chapters 19-40)

A. God's Covenant with His People (Chapters 19-31)

1. The setting in which the law was given (chapter 19)

2. Decalogue (20:1-21)

3. Book of the covenant (20:22 - 24:11)

4. Ritual rules and regulations (24:12 - 31:18)

B. The Fall and Restoration of God's People (Chapters 32-34)

1. Israel breaks the covenant (32:1 - 33:6)

2. Renewal of the covenant by God (33:7 - 34:35)

C. The Construction of the Tabernacle (chapters 35-40)

1. Preparation for the erection of the tabernacle (35:1 - 36:7)

2. Construction of the tabernacle (36:8 - 39:31)

3. Completion of the Tabernacle (39:32-43)

4. Furnishing the tabernacle inside and out (40:1-33)

5. God's Dwelling with His People (40:34-38)

[Greek ῎Εξοδος; lat. Exodus], one of the central events of the Holy. stories of the OT: the departure of the children of Israel from Egypt; the title of the 2nd book of the Pentateuch, which tells about the deliverance of the Jews from Egypt. slavery, about the beginning of the journey through the desert and the conclusion of a covenant with God on Mount Sinai.

Book title Exodus and its place in the canon

In euros traditions of the book Exodus, like other books of the Pentateuch, is named after its first significant word - “Shemot” in the initial words of the book: “Veelle shemot” (, “These are the names” - Exodus 1. 1). In translations of the Bible into Russian. and Western European languages this name goes back to the translation of the LXX (῎Εξοδος) or Vulgate (Exodus). Title of the book in sir. The Peshitta translation also follows this tradition: - “The Book of Exodus.”

Book Exodus contains a narrative about the fulfillment of the Divine promises given to the patriarchs in the book. Being, forming so. thematic unity with other books of the Pentateuch, however, the location of its text in the canon has a number of features. Title verses of the book. Exodus is not a continuation of the final verses of the previous book (Gen. 50. 26), but is a brief repetition of the names of the sons of Jacob from Gen. 46. 8-27. The last verses of this book (Exodus 40. 36 ff.) refer to Numbers 9. 15-23, which complete the story about the tabernacle, and the initial words of the book. Leviticus (Lev 1.1) are a continuation of the last verse of the book. Exodus, and the one preceding it Exodus 40. 35.

Textology book. Exodus

Text of the book. The Exodus is presented in 4 textual traditions: Heb. text (MT), Greek. the text of the Septuagint (LXX), the Samaritan Pentateuch and Qumran. manuscripts. In general, the text of the book. The Exodus is well preserved in Heb. manuscript tradition: MT based on the Leningrad Codex (B19a) was separately published by G. Quell in mid. BHS (Exodus et Leviticus / Ed. K. Elliger, W. Rudolph. Stuttg., 1973. (BHS; 2)) and entered the latter. to the BHS critical edition. The Greek text LXX with a critical apparatus, which took into account discrepancies in the Vatican (B) and Alexandrian codes (A), was published with commentaries by A. Ralphs (Septuaginta / Ed. A. Rahlfs. Stuttg., 1935. Vol. 1. P. 86-158); the most complete critical edition of the Greek. text of the book The Exodus was prepared by J. Wevers as part of the LXX publication of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences (Exodus / Ed. J. W. Wevers, adjuvante U. Quast. Gött., 1991. (Septuaginta. VTG; 2/1)). Discrepancies between LXX and MT in the book. The Exodus is larger than the other books of the Pentateuch, but they are not fundamental. Among the most significant discrepancies in the words of Exodus 24.10 according to MT “And they saw the God of Israel...”, the LXX translation eliminates the idea that God can be visible: “And they saw the place where the God of Israel stood.” Dr. An important difference is the mention of 70 ancestors of Jacob in MT (Exodus 1.5), in the LXX we are talking about 75, this reading is confirmed by a number of Qumrans. texts (eg 4 QExodb). There are also differences in the order of the verses in the commandments of the decalogue (Exodus 20), where, according to the Vatican Codex (B), the 6th commandment follows the 7th and 8th. Dr. the difference is associated with the story about the vestments of the priests (Ex 39. 2-31), which in the MT follows the description of the structure of the tabernacle and its decoration, and in the LXX is placed at the beginning of another section (Ex 36. 9-40).

Critical edition of the text of the book. The Exodus in the Samaritan Pentateuch, taking into account the manuscript tradition, was prepared by A. von Gall (Der Hebräische Pentateuch der Samaritaner / Hrsg. A. von Gall. Giessen, 1914. Bd. 2: Exodus. S. 86-158). Currently At the time, the most authoritative edition is considered to be the edition of the Samaritan Pentateuch edited by A. Tal (The Samaritan Pentateuch: Ed. according to MS 6(C) of the Shekhem Synagogue / Ed. A. Tal. Tel Aviv, 1994). The version of the Samaritan Pentateuch contains a large number of additions, discrepancies and interpolations, but it is based on the text closest to the Proto-Masoretic (Davila. 2000. P. 277). Exodus 18:24 is supplemented by verses Deuteronomy 1:9-18, and the 10th commandment in Exodus 20:17 is supplemented by a quotation from Deuteronomy 11:29 and 27:2-7; Exodus 20.19 is expanded by Deut. 5.24-27, and Exodus 20.22 by Deut. 5.28-31. The story about the people's murmur against Moses in the desert (Exodus 14:12) is moved forward and placed after Exodus 6:9, thereby complementing the story about the people's murmur against Moses in Egypt. The most important difference, which perhaps reflects the ideology of the Samaritan community, relates to Exodus 20.24: “in the place where I have appointed that My name should be mentioned...” - in MT: “... in every place where I have appointed mention My name..."

More than 60 fragments of the book were discovered among the Qumran texts. Exodus. In the 1st cave fragments were found that include Exodus 16. 12-16; 19.24 - 20.1; 20. 5-6; 20.25 - 21.1; 21. 4-5 (1QExod). Three scrolls come from the 2nd cave: 2QExoda (2Q2) contains the verses Exodus 1.11-14; 7. 1-4; 9. 27-29; 11. 3-7; 12. 32-41; 21. 18-20; 26. 11-13; 30.21; 30. 23-25; 32. 32-34, which reflect the textual tradition presented in the LXX; 2QExodb (2Q3) includes the texts of Exodus 4.31; 12.26-27; 18.21-22; 19.9; 21.37 - 22.2; 22. 15-19; 27. 17-19; 31. 16-17; verse 34.10 follows in an order unknown from other manuscripts: after Exodus 19.9; 3rd scroll - 2QExodс (2Q4) contains Exodus 5. 3-5.

In the 4th cave, 13 fragments were found, 2 of which were recorded by the Paleo-European. by letter: 4Q11 and 4Q22. Fragment 4QExodd contains Exodus 13.15-16; 15.1; fragment 4QExodc - Ex 7-15; 17-18. This fragment is noteworthy in that the version of the Song of Moses presented in it (Exodus 15. 12-18) is devoid of archaic morphological features characteristic of the MT version. From the 7th cave come Exodus 28.4-6 and 28.7 in Greek. translation. Also fragments of Exodus 4.28-31; 5. 3 and 6. 5-11 in Hebrew are preserved in finds from Wadi Murabbaat. List of Qumran fragments of the book's text. For the outcome, see the publication by F. Martinez (The Dead Sea Scrolls: Study Edition / Ed. F. G. Martínez, E. J. C. Tigchelaar. Leiden; N. Y.; Köln, 1999. P. 1311-1312, 1314, 1318-1319, 1322). In general, most of the fragments are close to MT. The most important find is 4QpaleoExodm, containing fragments of Exodus 6-37. This scroll in some places reflects a different version of the text than the MT. Although the text is not identical to the Samaritan Pentateuch, it also contains a number of additions, especially in the narratives about Egypt. executions; the text of the 10 commandments from Exodus 19 is supplemented by decrees from the book. Deuteronomy (Deut. 11. 29-30; 27. 2-7). Also in this text, as in the Samaritan Pentateuch, after Exodus 32.10 comes Deut. 9.20. Likewise, after Exodus 18.24 there is an insertion from Deut. 1.9-18 about the appointment of judges. Dr. a feature of the text is the location of Exodus 30.1-10, where the construction of an altar for incense is prescribed, after Exodus 26.35; and the text of Exodus 20.19 is supplemented by a parallel narrative from Deut. 5.21-24. This version contains a number of discrepancies with the MT, many of which correspond to the text of the LXX and the Samaritan Pentateuch, but a larger number of fragments confirm the reading of the MT (Sanderson J. E. An Exodus Scroll from Qumran. Atlanta (Georgia), 1986. (HarvSS; 30)).

Structure and content of the book of Exodus and its main themes

Book structure The outcome, despite the consistent narrative, is quite difficult to interpret, due to the interweaving of narrative and legislative material. Researchers offer various options for thematic division of book chapters. Three main blocks can be distinguished: I - the story of God’s liberation of the Israelites from Egypt and the journey to Mount Sinai through the desert (Exodus 1 - 18.27); II - the Israelis at Mount Sinai: the conclusion of a covenant with the people (19.1 - 24.18), the story of the falling away from God and the introduction of the cult of the golden calf and the renewal of the covenant (32-34); III - decree on the construction of the tabernacle and the establishment of the ministry (25-31; 35-40). The introduction contains a genealogical list of Jacob's ancestors (1. 1-9), the conclusion is devoted to a description of the final stage of the consecration of the tabernacle (40. 34-38).

I. 1. Israel in slavery to the Egyptians. The story of Moses before his calling

(Ex 1. 1 - 2. 25). Book The Exodus begins with a listing of the names of the sons of Jacob, from whom the Jewish tribes and clans originated in Egypt (1. 1-7, cf. Gen. 46. 8-27). The rapid growth in the number of Israelites led to the fact that Pharaoh began to brutally oppress the Jews (Exodus 1.7 ff.). They participated in the construction of Egypt. cities Pithom (Pitom; Egyptian Per-Atum, Pi-Atum - “House of Atum”) and Raamses (Per-Ramses, Pi-Ramses - “House of Ramses”). Since the number of Jews, despite the oppression, did not decrease, Pharaoh ordered first the midwives secretly, and then the entire people, to kill all the Jews. babies husband gender (1. 15-22). A baby was born into a family from the tribe of Levi; after 3 months, the mother put him in a basket and hid him in the reed thickets on the banks of the Nile. Pharaoh's daughter found the child, decided to save it and, on the advice of Moses' sister, appointed his mother as the baby's nurse. Later, the child was returned to the pharaoh’s daughter, who adopted him and named him Moses (probably the name is of Egyptian origin from - “born”, cf. the name of Pharaoh Thutmose - “born of [the god] Thoth”) (2.5 ff.). In Exodus 2:10 the etymology of the name Moses is based on a play on words in Hebrew. language: - (“to remove (from the water)”). Having matured, Moses performed 3 saving acts, thereby anticipating his role in the history of the people. First he killed the overseer and thereby saved the Jew; then he defended another Jew from the insults of a fellow tribesman. Finally, Moses fled into the desert to the Midianites - nomadic tribes, and saved the daughters of the local priest (priest) from the oppression of the shepherds (2. 11-17). Moses married the priest's daughter Zipporah, who bore him a son.

The rescue of baby Moses from the water prefigures the future deliverance of Israel during the crossing of the Red Sea (Sarna. 1992. P. 695); Another parallel with the story of the salvation of the baby Moses is the story of the deliverance of the forefather Noah from the flood, since in both cases, both for the basket of reeds and for Noah’s Ark, one word is used in MT - The story of the birth of Moses is usually compared by researchers with the story of Sargon of Akkad (c. 2300 BC), in which Sargon says about himself that his mother put him in a basket of reeds, coated with asphalt, and sent him down the river (Lewis B. The Sargon Legend. Camb. ( Mass.), 1980. P. 24-25; ANET P. 119), as well as from Egypt. the myth of how Isis hid her baby Horus in the thickets of papyrus in the Nile Delta in order to save her from the predatory god Set (for other literary parallels, see: Lewis B. The Sargon Legend. 1980. P. 149-209).

2. Calling and election of Moses

(Ex 3. 1 - 7. 6). One day Moses was tending his father-in-law’s cattle and approached the mountain of God Horeb (cf. Exodus 17.6; 33.6). In Exodus 19.11, 20, the mountain on which the revelation was received is called Sinai, but in parallel narratives from the book. In Deuteronomy it is also called Horeb (Deut. 4.15). The difference in the name of the place of revelation is usually explained in the light of the theory of the sources of the Pentateuch: the compilers used texts from different traditions - on the one hand, the Yahwistic, where the mountain is called Sinai, on the other, the Elohistic and Deuteronomistic, in which it is called Horeb (Durham. 1987. P. 29 ; Propp. 1999. Vol. 1. P. 198; see Art. Moses saw a bush that was burning with fire and was not burned; From this flame, God through an Angel turned to Moses, commanding him to lead the Israelites out of Egypt. slavery to “a good and spacious land, flowing with milk and honey” (Exodus 3:8). Moses tried to renounce his calling, which he considered unworthy, including because of his tongue-tiedness (3.11; 4.10), but God gave Moses the ability to perform miracles with the help of a staff and appointed him brother Aaron as a mediator, who will become the mouth of Moses (4.16). From now on, Moses will be a god for Pharaoh, and Aaron will be his prophet (7.1).

The story of the burning bush (the so-called burning bush) contains the story of God's revelation of His name. Moses justified the desire to know the name of God with the request of the people (Exodus 3.13), and to his question God gave 3 answers: “I am who I am” (Exodus 3.14 according to MT); “Thus say to the children of Israel: He whose name is “I am ()” has sent me to you" (Exodus 3.14 according to MT) and “Thus say to the children of Israel: The Lord (YHWH, Yahweh) ... has sent me to you” ( Ex 3.15). From the 3rd answer it can be assumed that the name YHWH is consonant (and perhaps etymologically related) to the word (“I am”). In the LXX (and in the Synodal translation) the words “I am Who I Am” (Exodus 3:14) are rendered as “I am Who I Am (Existing)” (᾿Εγώ εἰμι ὁ ὤν). From now on, the Lord will call Israel “son” and “firstborn” (4. 22-23), which determined the subsequent story about the execution of the firstborn and received a liturgical interpretation in the decree on the dedication of the firstborn to the Lord (13. 2, 11-16). The "sonship" of Israel serves as an indication both of the relationship of God and His people, and of the separation of Israel from other nations, since Israel now becomes His people for the Lord (6. 5-7). The theme of God's election of the people is revealed in the book. The outcome is not in philosophical categories, but as an action of God in human history (Preuss. 1995. P. 37). In the formation of a new people, the main factor becomes faith in the Lord, since the Jews do not take any military actions for their liberation, but only must follow the instructions of Moses. The words of Exodus 4.22-23 are repeated in the Samaritan Pentateuch after Exodus 11.4, in the story about the death of the firstborn, which, according to some commentators, better reflects the logic of the narrative (Propp. 1999. Vol. 1. P. 218).

The narrative is interrupted by the story of the night meeting of Moses and his family on the road to Egypt with the Lord, who “wanted to kill him” (Exodus 4:24-26). Zipporah circumcised her son with a stone knife and said the mysterious: “... you are a bridegroom of my blood... by circumcision” (4. 25-26; other option: “through circumcision” - Propp. 1999. Vol. 1. P. 183 ), after which the Lord “went away” (Exodus 4:26). The LXX does not make this phrase any clearer: “there was blood from the circumcision of my son.” The exact meaning of this story is not clear. It could reflect archaic rituals, for example. initiation for young men (Durham. 1987. P. 57). A possible biblical parallel to this story is the story of the night struggle with the stranger of the patriarch Jacob at the river. Jabbok (Genesis 32. 25 ff.). In the context of the book. Exodus, this story anticipates the story of the execution of the firstborn on Easter night: in Exodus 12.22, the anointing with blood, which averts murder, is described by a verb that is also used in Exodus 4.25 (lit. - “to touch”; cf. also: Isa. 6.7 ; Jer 1.9).

Moses and Aaron brought the joyful news to the people that “the Lord had visited the children of Israel and saw their suffering” (Exodus 4:31). After this, they turned to Pharaoh with a request to release the Hebrews. people to serve God in the desert, to which Pharaoh answered with insolence: “Who is the Lord, that I should obey His voice...?” (5.2) - and then ordered to tighten the working conditions of the Jews (5.5-20). Moses cried out to God, who turned to him with a new commission and vowed to free Israel (6.1 ff.). Pharaoh's inattention to requests to improve the situation of the Jews forces Moses and Aaron to openly oppose the cruel ruler, bringing divine punishment to the entire country. Exodus 6.2-13 contains a retelling with a number of additions (the genealogy of Moses and Aaron in Exodus 6.14-24) of the main content of revelation and the divine plan for the salvation of Israel outlined earlier, therefore the text of Exodus 3.1 - 6.1 is considered in the biblical criticism in the light of the theory of sources as part of the narrative related to the so-called. priestly code (P) (Durham. 1987. P. 72-74; Propp. 1999. Vol. 1. P. 266). The basis for this hypothesis is, among other things, the words of Exodus 6.3: “I appeared to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob with [the name] “God Almighty,” but with [My] name “Lord” I did not reveal myself to them.” These words contradict the book. Genesis, where the name Lord (YHWH, Yahweh) appears repeatedly (eg: Gen 4.6).

3. Egyptian plagues

(Ex 7. 8 - 11. 10). Moses and Aaron tried to force Pharaoh with the help of miraculous signs to release the Jews, but Pharaoh became even more stubborn, refusing to recognize the authority of the brothers as messengers of God (7. 8-13). Then God decided to bring executions on Egypt, which showed what human arrogance and arrogance in relation to God lead to (7.17). The narrative of the executions has a clear structure and is built on a 3-part model (9 executions are combined into 3 triads), the material of each part is organized according to a single principle: before the first 2 executions of each group, the pharaoh receives a warning about punishment, and the 3rd execution occurs suddenly : 1) the transformation of water into blood (7. 14-25), the invasion of toads (8. 1-15) and midges (8. 16-19), which Aaron accomplished with the help of a staff; 2) the invasion of gadflies (or dog flies) (8.20-32), the death of livestock (9.1-7) and boils (9.8-12) occurred through the actions of Moses and Aaron; 3) hail (9. 13-35), plague of locusts (10. 1-20) and darkness (10. 21-29) were committed by Moses. The first 9 plagues are based on natural phenomena, and the last, 10th plague, associated directly with God's intervention in history, stands alone in the narrative. Executions occur throughout Egypt, except for the land of Goshen, where Jews lived and which is usually associated with the eastern part of the Delta (8.22; cf. Gen. 46.28-29, 33-34; 47.1-6, 11 ). The first 2 executions were repeated by the magicians, but the 3rd was beyond their strength, and they recognized it as the “finger of God” (Exodus 8:19). Six subsequent plagues forced the pharaoh to consider whether to give in to the requests of his brothers. After the 4th plague, he negotiates with Moses, but sets impossible conditions. Plague 8, when the locusts were drowned in the “Red Sea” (10.19), foreshadows the fate of Pharaoh’s army in Exodus 14. After the 9th plague (“darkness throughout the whole land of Egypt”), Pharaoh becomes furious and drives Moses out of the palace with a warning, on pain of death, not to appear “in front of my face again” (10.28). In parallel with the story of the executions, 2 related themes are consistently developed: the growing hardness of Pharaoh’s heart, which is mentioned 20 times (7.13; 8.15, etc.), and the gradually weakening position of Pharaoh, which is expressed in his 7 concessions to the children of Israel (8.25; 9.27-28, etc.). These interconnected narrative lines result in emphasizing the story of Israel's separation from Egypt and setting the stage for the story of its complete liberation.

4. The death of the Egyptian firstborns and the establishment of the rite of celebrating Easter

(Exodus 12. 1 - 13. 16). The culmination of Egypt. executions occur on the 10th, the most terrible punishment - the extermination of all firstborns in Egypt. The purpose of this execution was not only for Pharaoh to release the Hebrews. people, but also so that the Egyptians “knew what difference the Lord makes between the Egyptians and the Israelites” (11.7). The punishment will befall all the firstborn of the Egyptians, including domestic animals, but it will not affect the Jews still living among the Egyptians at that moment, nor their livestock (11.5-7). The memory of the preservation of the Israelite firstborns during the last plague is associated with the establishment of rituals for celebrating Passover. On the night from the 14th to the 15th of the first spring month of Abib or Nisan, God commands the Jews to perform a “protective” rite: every Hebrew. the family must slaughter a one-year-old lamb, smear its blood on the doorposts and lintel, and prepare a sacrificial meal of lamb meat, which must be eaten with bitter herbs and unleavened bread “with haste” (Exodus 12:11; this emphasized a special meaning Passover meal as a metaphor for transition). The sign of blood on the doors of the houses of the Jews should save them from destruction by the Lord and protect them from the “destroying plague” (12.13; lit. - from “defeat by destruction”; another possible meaning is from “the blow of the destroyer” - Propp. 1999. Vol. 1. P. 401-402). According to EUR According to the concept, blood contained the life of a living being (Deut. 12:23), so the shedding of blood during sacrifice was a symbol of atonement. In the case of the Old Testament Passover, atonement extended to the house marked with blood. Thus, in a symbolic sense, the deliverance of the firstborn was accomplished by the blood of the lamb. On the night of Easter, the Lord will “pass by the doors” of houses marked with the blood of a lamb (a very rare verb is used - “pass by, pass by”, which is consonant with the name of the Easter holiday). The prescription for Passover is closely related to the establishment of the holiday of “unleavened bread” - mazzot (), when during the week there should be no leavened bread in the Jewish home, the beginning of this holiday coincides with Passover night (Ex 12. 14-20; 13. 3-10 ). These 2 holidays should be celebrated as a remembrance of the events of I. (12.14, 24). The need to use unleavened dough instead of leavened dough is explained by the haste with which the Jews had to leave Egypt (12.39).

After the 10th plague, Pharaoh orders the Israelites to leave, asking Moses and Aaron to intercede for him with God (12.31-32). Fulfilling the order of Moses, the Jews ask the Egyptians to give them valuable things (12.35). The Israelites, in the amount of “up to six hundred thousand foot men, except children,” set out from Rameses to Succoth (literally, “to the tents”; Ex. 12.37), the exact location of which is not clear; perhaps its name comes from Egypt. toponym (Propp. 1999. Vol. 1. P. 413) and Succoth can be correlated with Tell el-Maskhut in the east. parts of Wadi Tumilat (Durham. 1987. P. 171).

Further instructions about the establishment of the Passover in Exodus 12.43-49 continue the story of Exodus 12.1-20, the stories about the firstborn (13.1-2; 11-16) and unleavened bread (13.3-10) sum up what was said at the beginning chapters. Particular emphasis in the instructions about Easter is placed on the conditions regulating the possibility of foreigners participating in the holiday (12.45-48), but the main thing is that the entire cycle of Easter regulations serves to pass on the memory of I. to subsequent generations (13.8). Every firstborn of a domestic animal is a husband. sex must be dedicated to God, i.e., sacrificed (this applied only to clean animals; unclean ones, for example, donkeys, had to be replaced with ritually clean lambs or redeemed - Ex 13. 12-13). First-born husband gender, born into a family, was supposed to be dedicated to God, that is, to become a servant of God, but since this dedication could not be realized in practice, it was replaced by a ransom (13.15). Afterwards the tribe of Levi, separated to serve God, became such a ransom for the firstborn of Israel and carried out the Levitical service, and the livestock belonging to them was considered a ransom for the firstborn of the livestock of the rest of the people (Numbers 3.40-41).

5. A wonderful passage across the sea

(Exodus 13. 17 - 15. 21). Having left Succoth, the children of Israel stopped in Etham (the exact localization of the place is not clear), “at the end (or “on the edge”) of the desert” (13.20). The symbol of the Divine presence among the people was the pillar of cloud and the pillar of fire, which illuminated the path for the Israelites at night (13.21-22). The Israelites then encamped in front of Pi-hahiroth, between Migdol and Baalzephon (Exodus 14:2), the exact location of which is unknown. Perhaps the LXX is reading Heb. as i.e. as a proper name - ἀπέναντι τῆς ἐπαύλεως (“in front of the camp/parking lot”).

This message about God's providential guidance during the departure of the Israelites is followed by a story about the miracle of crossing the Red (Red) Sea (in the LXX - ἐρυθρὰ θάλασσα; in the Vulgate - mare rubrum), in the MT it is called “the sea of reeds”. The crossing point is usually located in the areas of the Gulf of Suez. or in the area of B. and M. Gorky Lakes located to the north of it. In the text of the book. Exodus in the story about the miraculous passage across the sea, it is more often called simply “sea” ( - Exodus 14.2, 9, 16, 21-23, 26-29, with the exception of 15.4); the name Red Sea is found in other places (Exodus 10.19; 15.22; 23.31). More precisely, this name in connection with the miraculous transition is indicated in Deuteronomy 11.4.

Pharaoh changed his mind and pursued Israel with an army including 600 chariots. In response to the murmur of the people, frightened by the persecution of a powerful enemy, Moses persuaded the Israelites not to be afraid, because they would see “the salvation of the Lord, which He will work for you today” (Exodus 14:13). At the command of the Lord, “Moses stretched out his hand over the sea,” the waters of the sea parted, and then the Israelites walked among the waters, as if between two walls, on dry land (14.21-22). At the same time, it is said that the Lord drove away the waters of the sea “with a strong east wind all night and made the sea dry land,” as a result of which the Egyptians chased the Israelites on dry land (14.21, 23). The next morning the Lord looked out from the pillar of fire and cloud at the Egyptians and threw them into confusion. They ran towards the water (14.24, 27). Moses again stretched out his hand, and the waters returned to their place and covered the army of the Egyptians pursuing the people of Israel (14.26-27). In the prose part of ch. 14 constantly repeated references to Pharaoh and his army (14. 6-7, 9, 17, 23, 26, 28) are contrasted with verses referring to the actions of the children of Israel (14. 16, 22, 29); these lines converge in the final words that “the Lord delivered the Israelites on that day from the hands of the Egyptians...” (14. 30-31; cf.: 15. 19).

A poetic account of the crossing of the sea is presented in the song of Moses, glorifying the Lord as “a man of war” (15.3). The text of the song can be divided into 4 main parts: 1) in verses 1-5 the idea of creating this victorious hymn, dedicated to God’s sinking of Pharaoh’s chariots, is proclaimed; 2) verses 6-10 glorify the right hand of God, who defeated the enemy, whose fierce pursuit of the Israelites, like prey, ended in drowning like lead in the waters of the sea; 3) verses 11-16 glorify God’s guidance of His people to the dwelling of His holiness, which inspires fear in all neighboring nations; 4) the final part, verses 17-18, celebrates God's settling of His people on His mountain, in His habitation and sanctuary.

In terms of content glorifying God's miraculous intervention in the history of the Israelites, this song is comparable to the hymn of Deborah (Judges 5) and is an example of the oldest poetry of Israel, usually dating no later than the 12th-10th centuries. BC (Durham. 1987. P. 202). The language of the song contains certain archaic features: for example, the presence of a suffix (Exodus 15.7), as well as the preservation of the root form (from the verb) (15.5). Some researchers see echoes of the Middle East in this text. myths about the victory of the supreme god over the god (or goddess) of the sea (for example, the Ugaritic legend about the battle of Baal against Yammu - ANET. P. 129-135).

6. Trials on the way to Sinai

(Ex 15. 22 - 17. 16). The story about the journey of the Israelites from the sea to Sinai contains 4 stories about the difficulties with which the Lord tested His people in the desert (Exodus 15.22 ff.; 16.4 ff.; 17.1 ff.; 17. 8 ff.). Getting rid of difficulties occurs through divine miracles (signs). The new status of the people adopted by God presupposes the special care and protection of the Lord, which is manifested in miracles during the wanderings in the desert. The thematic arrangement of these stories consistently demonstrates the action of God's providence, His Providence and readiness to deliver Israel from the suffering that befell it.

Arriving in the desert of Sur, the region that separated Egypt from the territory of the nomads (15.22), the Israelites were unable to drink water from the spring (or well) in Marah. The etymology of the name of this place corresponds to the content of the story (Hebrew letters - “bitter”, from Hebrew - “to be bitter”). Moses, on the advice of the Lord, threw a piece of wood into the water, and the water became drinkable. This miraculous transformation of bitter water into sweet water was correlated with Moses’ command to the people to obey the voice of God and fulfill His statutes and commandments (15.26). Arriving then at the oasis of Elim (15.27), the Israelites discovered there 12 springs of water and 70 palm trees; these numbers obviously have a symbolic meaning, indicating, for example, the 12 tribes of Israel and 70 clans (Exodus 1.5) or 70 elders (see: 24.4, 9).

In response to the new murmur of the Israelites and their memories of the cauldrons of meat in Egypt (16.3), the Lord gives them “bread from heaven,” which looked like “frost on the ground” and was called manna (16.4, 14, 31), which is played out in the Israelis’ question to each other, “What is this?” () (16.15). The miracle of manna was intended to teach the Israelites to trust God, who could feed His people even in the desert. In this story, the holiness of the Sabbath day is mentioned for the first time (even before the giving of the commandments): the Lord stops giving manna on the Sabbath, so Israel must save the surplus in order not to starve on this day (16.23). Exodus 16:35 notes that the giving of manna ceased only when Israel reached Canaan. The story of the giving of manna contains a brief mention of quails (16.13), which is revealed only in Numbers 11.31-32. Moses' call to all the people to appear "before the Lord" (Exodus 16:9) usually refers to the service in the tabernacle (23:15, 17; 25:30; Lev 8:27, 29) and is therefore considered in biblical criticism as one of signs of the composite nature of this story (Greenberg, Sperling. 2007. P. 615).

Having left the desert of Sin and camped in Rephidim, the people again experienced thirst and began to reproach Moses. Then Moses, by order of the Lord, took the elders, came to Mount Horeb and struck the rock, from which water gushed out. The place of the miraculous discovery of this source received 2 names, which cannot refer to specific toponyms, but rather reflect the content of this episode: Massa (“temptation”) and Meriva (“litigation, dispute”).

The last test was associated with a clash with the Amalekites (another name after their ancestor - Amalek). Moses' new assistant and successor, Joshua, entered the battle, and Moses, along with his comrades-in-arms Hor and Aaron, watched the battle from the top of the hill. When Moses (including with the help of Aaron and Hur) “raised his hands, he prevailed over Israel, and when he lowered his hands, Amalek prevailed” (Exodus 17:11-12). The Amalekites were defeated, and this victory was marked by the installation of a memorial altar, to which Moses gave the name “The Lord is my sign (or banner)” (in the synodal translation “Jehovah Nissi” - Exodus 17.15).

In general, all stories about temptations in the desert find parallels in the book. The numbers, where they are assigned to the period after the Sinai revelation and are supplemented with a number of features. The story of the waters from Meribah is reflected in Numbers 20. 2-13 and ends with the Lord’s words that Moses and Aaron will not enter the Promised Land. The manna story is followed up in Numbers 11 by the story of how God sent quails to the disgruntled Israelites to eat, but those who ate them were punished by death. The battle with Amalek and other nomads, which ends in the defeat of Israel, is spoken of in Numbers 14. 39-45.

7. Visit to Moses by his father-in-law Jethro and administrative changes

(Exodus 18:1-27). Hearing about the miracles, Moses’ father-in-law Jethro came to the Jewish camp located in front of the Mount of God. He confessed the superiority of the Lord over all other gods and made sacrifices to Him (18.10-12). The next day, seeing how Moses was tired of the litigation of the Israelites, Jethro offered to transfer the adm. and the judicial duties of Moses (who should henceforth perform only mediatory functions between the people and God) to the most capable and honest representatives of the Hebrews. people appointed to resolve disputes. The description of Jethro's reform contains terminology later. used in texts related to military transformations (Exodus 18.21 ff. and 1 Kings 8.12; 2 Kings 18.1; 4 Kings 1.9 ff.; 11.10). On the one hand, the story about Jethro falls out of the general chronological sequence set out in the book. Exodus and other books of the Pentateuch of events, which allows many. researchers place it after the story about the giving of the commandments. Thus, in Exodus 18.5 it is said that the people encamped around the mountain of God, but the approach of the Israelites to it is said only in Exodus 19.1-2. In Deut. 1. 15 adm. Jethro's transformations are presented as occurring after the people left Sinai. On the other hand, thematically the place of this episode looks meaningful: its 1st part, dedicated to the positive role of Jethro as a foreigner, can be contrasted with the behavior of Amalek towards Israel in Exodus 17.8-13, and the 2nd part foreshadows the mediatorial role of Moses as a legislator, disclosed in detail in the other half of the book.

II. 1. Theophany on Mount Sinai and the giving of the 10 commandments

(Exodus 19.1 - 20.21). In the 3rd month after I. from Egypt, the people approach Mount Sinai and camp to prepare, with the help of Moses, for a meeting with God, who brought them to Himself from the land of slavery “on eagle’s wings” (19.4). The Israelites must undergo a special initiation from God in order to become “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (19.6). In return, they undertake to fulfill the words of the Lord (19.7-8). The people, under threat of death, are forbidden to approach the foot of the mountain until the theophany begins (19.12-13). After 3 days, God reveals Himself and gives the people of Israel the law. Accompanied by thunder, lightning, the sound of a trumpet and a thick cloud, the Lord descended onto Mount Sinai “in fire” (19.18). Unlike the book. Exodus, where frightening signs precede the description of theophany, in the book. Deuteronomy they complete the giving of the commandments (see: Deut. 5. 22 ff.). Moses, as a mediator between God and the Israeli people, ascends Mount Sinai several times to receive commandments from the Lord and descends to the people. From the text of Exodus 20 it is not clear whether the people hear the words of the commandments directly from God or only through Moses (see: Exodus 20.18), in contrast to the book. Deuteronomy, where it is precisely said that God spoke to the people “face to face” (Deut. 5.4). According to the book. Exodus, the people stood at a distance, and “Moses entered the darkness where God is” (Exodus 20.21; “darkness” - according to LXX: γνόφος; MT: - “approached the cloud”).

In the Orthodox tradition, the commandments are presented as follows: 1st commandment - Exodus 20.3; 2nd - verses 4-6; 3rd - art. 7; 4th - verses 8-11; 5th - Art. 12; 6th - art. 13; 7th - art. 14; 8th - art. 15; 9th - Art. 16; 10th - Art. 17. In Catholic. and Lutherans. traditions Exodus 20.3-6 (1st and 2nd commandments in the Orthodox tradition) are understood as one commandment, and verse 20.17 (10th commandment in Orthodoxy) is divided into 2 commandments; thus the 3rd commandment becomes the 2nd, the 4th becomes the 3rd, etc. The text of the 10 commandments (20.1-17) is presented with minor variations in Deut. 5.6-21, and is also explicitly expressed in detailed interpretation in 3 main collections of laws: in the so-called. The Book of the Covenant (Exodus 20.22 - 23.33), in the laws of holiness (Lev 17-26) and in the Deuteronomistic corpus (Deuteronomy 12-28) (also about the content, structure and meaning of this section, see Art. Ten Commandments).

2. Collection of legal, moral and ritual provisions of the law

(Ex 20. 22 - 23. 33). After the prohibition on making images of gods and the regulations regarding the altar (Exodus 20:22-26), a collection of laws is set out. The first part is devoted to legal regulations (21.1 - 22.20), penalties are provided for their violation. Many of these norms have analogues among the laws of Mesopotamia that have come down to us (in particular, in the Code of Hammurabi) and the Hittite Kingdom. Unlike the 10 commandments and the 2nd part of the collection, direct appeal to the listener occurs in this section only a few times (21.2, 23; 22.18). The laws are grouped into thematic sections. In 1st place (21.1-11) are the laws on the rights of Jewish slaves, which may be due to the relevance of this topic for Dr. Israel (cf. Jer 34.8-22), and with the context of the giving of laws: since Israel was liberated from Egypt. slavery, then must show mercy to the slaves. Next, various crimes are considered (from more serious to less serious): for example, against the person, which were punishable by death (Exodus 21:12-17); bodily injuries, including those caused by animals (21.18-32); harm caused to livestock (including its theft; 21.33 - 22.4) and damage to crops (22.5-6); property disputes are regulated and the rights of borrowers are discussed (22.7-15); responsibility for seducing an unbetrothed girl is reported, including compensation to her parents (22. 16-17).

The second part of the collection (22.18 - 23.19) contains moral and ritual instructions, which, like the 10 commandments, are directly addressed to the listener. First there are orders to put to death those who have committed crimes that are particularly significant for the Jews. taboo society: a sorceress (witch), a bestialist and one who worships foreign gods (22. 18-20). This is followed by instructions about the need to show mercy to strangers (migrants), widows and orphans (22.21-27). Further instructions, unlike the laws set out in the 1st part of the collection, do not provide for legal sanctions for their violation; it is assumed that the violator will suffer not human, but God’s retribution. These include the commandment: “Do not slander the judges and do not revile the ruler of your people,” as well as the prohibition to eat the meat of a torn animal (22.28-31). This is followed by instructions on justice and justice (23. 1-9) and ritual instructions (23. 14-19), which are almost completely repeated in 34. 18-26 with minor differences. In 23. 14-17 the oldest cult calendar of Israel is described. Only 3 holidays (closely related to the agricultural year) are mentioned - the holidays of unleavened bread, harvest and fruit gathering, while the Passover is not mentioned. This section ends with strict instructions while traveling through the desert to listen to the voice of the Angel of God and to stay separate from the society and cult of the Canaanites and other peoples inhabiting Palestine (23.20-33), which is a feature of the legislative parts of the book. The Exodus is in contrast to the parallel passages in the texts of the law in Lev 26 and Deut 27-28, which usually end with a collection of blessings and curses.

One of the features of this legislative collection is the recognition of individual rights for slaves (Exodus 21.20, 26, 27), which has no parallels in the laws of the Ancient World (see also in Art. Law of Moses).

3. Making a covenant

(Exodus 24). Moses recounted to the people all the requirements of the law; in response, the Israelites accept his words as a condition for concluding a covenant (agreement), pledging to follow everything that the Lord said (24.3). To commemorate the conclusion of the covenant, Moses built an altar and placed 12 sacred stones - according to the number of tribes of Israel; Bulls were sacrificed, the blood of which Moses first sprinkled on the altar, and then, after reading the Book of the Covenant, on all the people with the words: “This is the blood of the covenant that the Lord has made with you regarding all these words” (24.8). Perhaps this rite indicates the new status of the people: “...you will be to Me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation...” (19.6), since the sprinkling of blood usually took place during ordination to the priesthood (29.20-21; Lev 8. 23-24, 30). Then Moses, Aaron, Nadab, Abihu and 70 elders of Israel climbed the mountain to celebrate a sacrificial meal in the presence of God, under whose feet they saw “something like work of pure sapphire and like the very sky, clear” (Exodus 24:10). This verse can be correlated with the contemplation of the Glory of the Lord and the statement about the impossibility of man to see the face of God (33. 18-23). Moses entered the cloud on the top of the mountain to receive from God the stone tablets with the text of the laws.

III. 1. Order to build a tabernacle

(Ex 25. 1 - 27. 21). The establishment of a covenant with God opened up the possibility for Israel to have regular communication with God in external forms. God commanded that valuable materials be collected to build Him a dwelling place among the people - a sanctuary or a tabernacle of meeting (25.8; 27.21). The image of the tabernacle in all its details was shown to Moses in a vision on the mountain (25.9, 40; 26.30; 27.8). First, a description is given of its most important element - the storage ark for the “tablets of the covenant” (24.12; 31.18). The lid of the ark will be decorated with images of cherubim, where God will “reveal” to Moses and give commands (25.22). This is followed by a description of the tables of offer (25. 23-30) and the seven-branched candlestick (25. 31-40). Mn. The decorations of the tabernacle are made of gold or wood covered with gold, which is intended to emphasize the holiness of this place. The interior of the tabernacle includes various coverings of linen, fine linen, blue and scarlet wool, on which are woven images of cherubim (26.1) and which are joined together with golden loops (26.5-6). The inner coverings of the tabernacle must be protected by an outer covering of goat's hair (26.7-13). The beams of shittim (acacia) wood, set in silver stands and fastened with tenons, form the walls of the tabernacle, all the wooden parts of which are also covered with gold (26. 15-30). A curtain of the finest fabrics (fine linen and multicolored wool) separates the “holy of holies,” where the Ark of the Covenant is kept, from the rest of the sanctuary (26.31-33), the entrance to which is also indicated by another curtain of patterned work (26.36). The square altar of burnt offering made of wood with 4 horns, located in the courtyard of the tabernacle, is covered with copper and contains rings for carrying it on wooden poles (27. 1-8). Linen curtains stretched on pillars with copper stands indicate a rectangular courtyard (27.9-19). Thus, the materials from which the tabernacle and its elements are made are arranged strictly in accordance with the 3-part division of the sacred space of the tabernacle and reflect the degree of holiness of its parts.

2. Liturgical statutes and regulations on clergy

(Exodus 27.20 - 31.18). To organize external forms of communication between the people and God, the Old Testament priesthood is established, which is a “priesthood within the priesthood,” that is, among the people who are already in a covenant, that is, in a special relationship with God. The description of the vestments of the priests (the richly decorated robes of Aaron and the simpler robes of his sons - Exodus 28) precedes the command to the sons of Aaron to keep the light in the lamp of the tabernacle at night using pure olive oil (27. 20-21). This is followed by a description of the ritual of Moses’ consecration of Aaron and his sons as priests (29. 1-37), with which the prescription for daily sacrifices is closely related: they must be performed in the sanctuary and include the slaughter of 2 lambs - in the morning and in the evening (29. 38-39) . Just as the Lord is the Ruler of all Israel, so this sanctuary should have national significance: all Jewish men are obliged to appear to the place where the presence of God is visibly manifested three times a year (23.17). Through the proper fulfillment of liturgical instructions, God must acquire a special way of being among Israel: it is in this section that it is specifically said that the Lord brought the Israelites “out of the land of Egypt to ... dwell among them” (29.46).

The conclusion of this section contains the theological foundations for the ministry of the priesthood (29. 42-46), it can be applied to the entire description of the ministry in the tabernacle (i.e., the end of chapter 31). This final passage is followed by a description of a gold-plated wooden incense altar for burning incense inside the sanctuary (30. 1-10); an order to collect half of the sacred shekel from each Israeli during the census as a sacrificial ransom for life in favor of the sanctuary in order to protect each inhabitant from the “destroying plague” (30.12); a description of the copper laver and its use by the clergy (30. 17-21), as well as the methods of using incense in worship, especially when anointing with myrrh and burning incense (30. 22-38). Then God appoints craftsmen to make the objects described in these instructions (31. 1-11). Next, the Sabbath law is proclaimed, prescribing the penalty of death for its violation (31. 12-17). This law implies the priority of the Sabbath rest even over the sacred work of arranging the sanctuary.

Some commentators place the narrative of Exodus 25.1 - 31.17 at the end of the story of the golden calf, i.e., the story of the execution of the order to build the tabernacle follows immediately after the story of the circumstances of receiving the law (see, for example: Greenberg, Sperling . 2007. P. 617-618).

3. The story of the golden calf

(Exodus 32-34) is a description of the fall, followed by the rejection of the people by God, repentance and restoration of the covenant. During Moses' stay on the mountain for 40 days, the people of Israel, fearing that their leader would not return, begged Aaron to make them a god who, in his words, would “go before us” (i.e., would lead the Israelites with him) - Ex 32. 1). Aaron cast a statue of a calf (or a bull, which traditionally served in the East as a symbol of masculine strength), melting down the gold earrings brought by the people, and then instituted a holiday for the Lord, whose image (or His presence) should henceforth be a golden calf. Thus, the Israelites violated the instruction of the 2nd commandment (20.4, 23). In anger, God commands Moses to come down from the mountain, promising to destroy the “stiff-necked” people (32.7-10), but Moses’ intercession averts God’s wrath from the people. Coming down from the mountain and seeing the ritual feast, Moses in anger breaks the tablets of the covenant, which means the dissolution of the covenant, and, turning the calf into dust and mixing it with water, forces the people to drink this solution, which is perhaps a ritual act emphasizing the destruction of the idol ( Durham 1987. P. 430). Moses instructs the assembly of Levites to put the apostates to death: they killed 3 thousand people. and thereby found themselves worthy to become priests of the Lord (Exodus 32:29). Moses seeks to beg forgiveness for Israel’s crime, in response the Lord sends His Angel, who will lead the people’s procession through the desert (32.34; 33.1-3). As a sign of the alienation of the people from God for their crime, Moses erected a tent outside the camp, which became the place of meeting with God, its visible image was a pillar of cloud descending to the entrance to the tent (33. 7-11). Moses asks the Lord to show him a sign of forgiveness and favor, in response the Lord promises that He will bring His glory and proclaim His name before him (33.19); Moses will stand in the cleft of the rock and see the Lord, but only “from behind,” meaning that His Face will be hidden (33. 22-23). In the new revelation, the Lord Himself proclaims His attributes, or properties, in the form of 8 epithets (34. 6-7), which were included later. in texts dedicated to the praise of His deeds (see, for example: Joel 2. 13; Jonah 4. 2; Nahum 1. 3; Ps 85. 15; 102. 8; 144. 8; Neh. 9. 17).

The divine response means the renewal of the broken covenant, which is confirmed in the command to make new tablets: God will write on them “the words that were on the first tablets” (Exodus 34:1). When renewing the covenant, the main conditions are the prohibition of making images of the deity (Exodus 34. 11-17; cf. 20. 22-23) and the strict fulfillment of calendar and ritual requirements (34. 18, 22-24; cf. 23. 14- 19), that is, those commandments that the people violated in the story about the calf. In ch. 34 God’s promise to expel the inhabitants of Canaan and the call to the Israelites not to enter into treaties with them are also repeated (34. 11-16; cf. 23. 20-33). According to Exodus 34.1, the same words are inscribed on the new tablets as on the previous ones (24.12; 31.18), but in Exodus 34.28 these commandments are called “decalogues” (this expression is more typical for the book of Deuteronomy ( Deut. 4. 12; 10. 4), in the book of Exodus is found only in this place). When Moses descended from the mountain, holding the new tablets, his face “began to shine with rays because [God] spoke to him” (34.29), so that, addressing the people, he was forced to cover his face with a veil.

4. Construction of the Tabernacle

(Exodus 35-40). Before starting work, Moses again warns the Israelites about the need to keep the Sabbath holy (35. 1-3), and then reminds them of the collection of offerings and valuable materials necessary for the construction of the tabernacle, and calls on the “wise in heart” to begin the work, from among whom then specially appoints the most capable craftsmen (35.10, 30-35). The account of the construction of the tabernacle in Exodus 36-39 repeats the instructions for its construction in Exodus 25-27, with minor changes and a different arrangement of material; a story about the costs of the work is added (38.21-31). First, we are talking about making covers (36. 8-19), a frame (36. 20-30) and a curtain with a veil (36. 35-38); then follows a description of the ark of the covenant (37.1-9), the table for the showbread (37.10-16), the lamp (37.17-24), the altar of incense (37.25-28), and incense (37.17-28). 29), the altar of burnt offering (38. 1-7), the washing vat (38. 8) and the robes of the priests (39. 1-31).

The result of the work was presented to Moses, who blessed the craftsmen (39.32-43) and in the “first month of the second year” (40.17) after I., he consecrated the tabernacle of meeting. The glory of the Lord () as a sign of the Divine presence in the form of a cloud filled the sanctuary (40.34; cf. the presence of His glory in the form of a cloud and fire on the top of Sinai in Exodus 24.16-17). Now, when Israel departs from Sinai, Divine glory will accompany them. The constructed tabernacle becomes a reminder of the Sinai revelation, which the people will remember during worship while wandering in the desert.

Book The Exodus ends with the story of how the cloud of the Lord accompanied Israel during their journey through the desert (40. 36-38), thereby anticipating a further, more detailed account of these events in the book. Numbers (especially in Numbers 9. 15-23).

E.P.S.

The Book of Exodus in Ancient Exegetical Traditions

Theme of I. in other books of the Old Testament

There is no stable term in Hebrew in the OT. language to designate I. as an event; this concept is expressed through infinitive constructions from the verb - “to leave” (Exodus 19.1; 2 Chron. 5.10; Micah 7.15). In the narrative of the Pentateuch, Egypt from Egypt is represented as one of the main themes of the Divine promise, prophetically foretold to the forefathers (Gen. 45. 28; 46. 3-4; cf. 50. 24-25). In the subsequent tradition of the Old Testament, the theme of I. was rethought in connection with other events, such as the wandering through the desert, the Sinai revelation, the entry into the Promised Land, etc.

The stable phrase “the Lord brought Israel out of Egypt” (Exodus 18:1) is found in various versions in the text of the Pentateuch: in the introduction to the decalogue (Exodus 20:2; Deut 5:6); in the laws of holiness (Lev 19.36; 22.33; 25.38; 26.13); in religious institutions (Lev 11.45; Numbers 15.41); in the prophecies of Balaam (Numbers 24.8); in the commandments of Deuteronomy (Deut. 6.12; 8.14; 13.10; 20.1); it is also found in later passages dating back to the Deuteronomist tradition (Judges 2.12; 3 Kings 9.9; 4 Kings 17.7, 36), in the story of the golden calves established by Jeroboam I (3 Kings 12. 28; cf.: Ex 32. 4, 8; Neh. 9. 18), and in prophetic literature (Jer. 2. 6; 16. 14 - 23. 7; Dan 9. 15). The theological basis for God's election of the Israelites as His people is set out in Deut 7:7-11; The theme of I. as deliverance from slavery is especially emphasized (Deut. 7.8; cf.: 9.26), and I. himself is Heb. people is interpreted as God returning His possession, that is, Israel (Exodus 15:13 and 2 Kings 7:23; Exodus 15:16 and Psalm 73:2).

In Old Testament writing, the memory of I. determined the formation of the historical tradition of Israel, associated with the understanding of the saving acts of God in relation to His people. Therefore, the significance of I. as the initial stage of the history of Israel, the reference to these events form the tradition of the chosen people: “... nothing like this was seen from the day the children of Israel came out of the land of Egypt until this day” (Judges 19.30; 1 Sam. 8. 8; 2 Kings 7.6; cf.: Am 9.7). In other places, when mentioning I. from Egypt, the emphasis is placed on subsequent events in the history of Israel related to him (Deut. 11.10; Judges 2.1; 6.13; 1 Kings 10.18; Josh. 2.10; Ps. 113. 1 word). I. from Egypt becomes the fundamental didactic principle, the key to the explanation and understanding of the Mosaic legislation, the core of which was the revelation of the saving actions of God in the history of Israel (Deut. 6. 21-23; 26. 8; Josh. 24. 6-7). I. justifies the establishment of festivals and religious customs by Dr. Israel (Deut 16. 1, 3, 6; Ex 12. 26-27; 13. 3, 8, 14-16; 23. 15; Lev 23. 42-43). The memory of I. as the deliverance from slavery of the Israelites in Egypt became the basis of the plural. social and moral requirements of the Mosaic legislation (Deut 5. 15; 10. 19; 15. 15; 16. 12; Ex 22. 21; 23. 9; cf. Lev 19. 34).

In the prophetic books of the Old Testament there are many allusions to I., which not only serve as starting points for moral exhortations, but also become important semantic guidelines; their mention should awaken in the people a sense of gratitude to God and responsibility before God (see, for example: Am 2. 10; 3. 1; Is. 4. 5; 11. 15; The image of I. became an expressive means of proclaiming hope for return from captivity.

The theme of I. is most clearly revealed in the Book of the Prophet. Hosea in the context of the revelation of Divine love for His people. The Lord loved and called Israel out of slavery as His son, even when the Jews were in Egypt (Hosea 11:1). Israel (represented in the form of a beloved) began to serve foreign gods and therefore must be again taken into the desert, so that the Lord could again turn to the “heart” of the people, as in the time of I.; That. hope is given for a new conquest of the Holy Land (2. 14-16). This appeal to the early history of Israel, to the events of oppression in Egypt and wanderings in the desert is intended to educate the lost people (9. 3; 11. 5; 13. 1-11).

Towards an understanding of the events of I. in the Book of the Prophet. Hosea is accompanied by words from the Book of the Prophet. Jeremiah about God’s love for Israel’s bride during the journey through the desert (Jer 2.2 ff.; cf.: 31.2), about the betrayal of Israel, who grumbled against God after God brought him out of Egypt (2.5 -9). According to the prophet To Jeremiah, God, when he brought the Israelites out of Egypt, gave them commandments not about sacrifices, but about listening to the voice of God (7. 21-28). Often mention of I. in the Book of Prophets. Jeremiah is associated with the story of the conclusion of the covenant (11. 1-8; 14. 21; 31. 31; 34. 13). Also, the theme of I. is present in Jeremiah’s prayer together with the story of the conquest of the Holy Land (32.20-22) and in the prophecy about the acquisition of God’s mercy by the new remnant of Israel, collected from the countries of dispersion (31.2 f.; cf.: 16. 14 lines; 23. 7 lines).

The allegorical depiction of God's love for Israel as a relationship between lovers continues in the Book of Prophets. Ezekiel (Ezekiel 16), but in other chapters the events of I. are presented differently. According to Ezekiel 20.5-14, God chose Israel, revealing Himself to His people in Egypt, promising to lead them to the Promised Land, demanding that they reject the service of Egypt. idols Israel neglected the love of God and did not abandon idolatry, but still the Lord fulfilled his promise and gave the Jews the law, which they also neglected. The saving acts described in the book. The Exodus was carried out by the Lord so that His name “would not be blasphemed before the nations” (20.9). The Jews, already in the desert, retreated from the regulations given to them by God, and this led to the catastrophe of captivity (cf. 20.36). A hint of I. as a sign of Israel’s chosenness and its exceptional position among other nations is contained in Ezekiel 34.13.

In the Book of Prophets. In Isaiah, the events of I. are presented as a direct parallel with the proclamation of the return (i.e., new I.) from Babylonian captivity. Particular emphasis is placed on the themes of redemption and Israel's wanderings in the wilderness (Isa 48:20), ritual purity (52:11; cf.: Exodus 12:11), and the extermination of the persecutors of the Jews. people at sea and God's care for His people during the wilderness journey (Is 43:16-21). New I. ev. the people from Babylonia will not be accompanied by difficult trials, like I. from Egypt, but rather by a joyful uplift of spirit; people are guaranteed safe escort upon return (52.9-10). Individual motifs of I. from Egypt without direct references are found in Isaiah 40. 1-8; 41. 17-20; 49. 8-13; 51. 9-15.

Numerous poetic allusions to I. are presented in the Psalter, where the events of I. from Egypt and wanderings in the desert are mentioned in the context of praising the deeds of God for His people. The glorification of the Lord as the liberator and savior of His people in this book is mainly based on the theme of I. The Lord is glorified for the salvation of the chosen people in the time of I. (Ps 67.7), the mighty acts of God are edifyingly contrasted with the oblivion and murmuring of the Israelites (77.10-55) , Israel is shown as a flock of sheep that the Lord leads through the desert (77.52). Israel, brought out of Egypt by the Lord, is represented as a vine, which He planted in fertile ground (79). There is a call to submission to God, who freed Israel from slavery and “took away the burdens from his shoulders, and his hands were freed from the baskets” (80.7). The greatness of the Lord is glorified through bringing plagues on Egypt for the sake of saving the elect (104.26-45), whom He brought out of Egypt in joy and gladness (104.43). The disobedience of the people and their sins in Egypt and in the desert in relation to the Lord, who “saved them for His name’s sake, in order to show His power” (105.8), are condemned. The event of I. is metaphorically represented through the images of the sea, the Jordan and the mountains, which were forced to make way for the Lord when He led Israel out of Egypt (113). Ps 134-135 is a thanksgiving praise to God, the Deliverer of Israel from slavery, combined with His glorification as the Creator of the universe.

The second part of the non-canonical Book of Wisdom of Solomon is an edifying apologetic retelling of the events of I. (Wis 10-19) as an example of the care and concern of the Lord for His people (19.21). The emphasis is placed on the fact that God, to Whom all the elements and all living things on earth are subordinated (19.16-21), placed them in the service of the Jews and used water (11.5-15) and fire (16 . 16-28), as well as beasts and monsters (16. 1-4) to punish the Egyptians. In the book they appear later. important for Christ. traditions are prototypes: the copper serpent is called the “sign of salvation” (σύμβολον σωτηρίας) (16.6), manna is called “angel food”, pleasing to the taste of everyone (16.20). The description of the fear that gripped the souls of the Egyptians during the divine execution (Exodus 10.21 ff.) is emphatically rhetorical in nature (17.1-20), and the Divine word condemning Egypt to death. firstborn, metaphorically compared to a sharp sword (18.15-16).

The Book of Exodus in Intertestamental Literature

In a parable from the Book of Enoch (1 Enoch. 89. 20-27), the Egyptians and Israelites are represented in the form of wolves and sheep. The Book of Jubilees ascribes to the evil angel Mastema the plan to destroy the Jews by the hands of Pharaoh and the Magi (Jub. 48.2, 12-15). According to the Book of Jubilees, I. occurred approximately 2410 years after the creation of the world (47.1; 48.1; 49.1). The Jews went to the sea from the 15th to the 21st day of the month of Nisan, and this period corresponded to the week of unleavened bread (49.1); from the 15th to the 18th day Mastema was captured and Israel had time to rest after crossing the sea (48.15).

The “Revelation of Baruch” mentions manna, which is stored in the heavenly treasury and will again be poured out on the earth in messianic times (2 Bar. 19.8). Researchers have compared this text with the Savior's revelation about the bread of life in John 6 (Gartner B. John 6 and the Jewish Passover. Lund, 1959. P. 19). In apocryphal Jewish literature, a poetic retelling of the events of I. is contained in the oracles of the Sibyls (Sib. 3. 248-257).

The Book of Exodus in the Writings of Pagan Authors

Information about the Jews from Egypt in Hellenistic literature appears no earlier than the 3rd century. BC. For the most part, these writings were created for polemical purposes and represent a distortion of Hebrew. tradition. Hekateus of Abdera (3rd century BC) reported that when many people in Egypt died from an epidemic of a certain disease, the authorities, seeing this as a sign of divine wrath, expelled all foreigners from the country, including Jews. Then Moses, superior in courage and wisdom to the other Jews, took them to his country (see: Diodor. Sic. Bibliotheca. XL 3. 1-3). Next, Hecataeus talks about the peculiarities of the Mosaic legislation and that he, “being an exile himself, legitimized an unsociable and secluded way of life” that distinguished the Jews from other peoples (Ibid. XL 3.4). In Strabo, Moses is presented as an Egyptian. a priest who left the country because he rejected the veneration of a deity in the form of an animal. After he had expounded his teaching, many intelligent people followed him to Jerusalem, and he established laws for them (Strabo. Geogr. XVI 2. 35-36).

Egypt the historian Manetho (IV-III centuries BC) dated the Jews from Egypt to the reign of Pharaoh Tetmosis (possibly Ahmose: 16th century BC - Ios. Flav. Contr. Ap. I 230 sq.) . In addition, he was the first to identify the ancestors of the Jews with the Hyksos (“shepherd kings”). According to Manetho, the Hyksos, after many years of brutal rule of the country, concluded a peace treaty with Pharaoh Tethmosis and left Egypt. In sir. desert, out of fear of the power of Assyria, they built the city of Jerusalem (lit. - Hierosolim, ῾Ιεροσόλυμα) on the land that was later called Judea (Ibid. I 75-92). According to another fragment of Manetho’s work, King Amenophis (possibly 13th century BC) tried to expel lepers and “unclean” people from the country and sent 8 thousand people. to work in the Nile quarry. Their leader was the priest Osarsiph, whom Manetho identified with Moses. This Osarsiph established customs and laws among the exiles that prohibited, in particular, the worship of Egypt. to the gods. Having united with the previously expelled Hyksos, the “unclean ones” plundered Egypt, destroyed temples and statues of the gods (Ibid. I 232-250). Manetho's messages are reproduced later. Alexandrian historians of the 1st century. according to R.H.: Chaeremon (Ibid. I 288-292), Lysimachus (Ibid. I 34 sq.), Apion (Ibid. II 1-13), Celsus (Orig. Contr. Cels. I 23; III 5; IV 47). Tacitus followed the report of Lysimachus and Apion (Tac. Hist. V 3 sq.).

Neopythagorean philosopher Numenius of Apamea in a fragment of the 3rd book. treatise "On the Good", telling about the expulsion of the Jews from Egypt, gratefully mentions Egypt. temple scribes (i.e., about the magicians) Jannes and Jambres. It was they, thanks to the art of magic, who were able to avert the most terrible misfortunes that Moses (in the original Greek Musaios - Μουσαῖος), capable of praying to God like no one else, brought upon Egypt (Euseb. Praep. evang. IX 8. 1-2) . Obviously the names are Egyptian. magicians go back to Jewish tradition. Jannes and Jambres were also mentioned by Pliny (Plin. Sen. Natur. hist. XXX 1. 14) and Apuleius (Apul. Apol. 90). The name Janni is found in the texts of Qumran, in the so-called. Damascus Document (CD-A 5. 18-19). It is possible that this story was also known to the apostle through the aggadic legend. Paul, who addresses her in the 2nd Epistle to Timothy (2 Tim. 3.8). Origen mentions an apocryphal work about Jannes and Mamre (Orig. Comm. in Matt. 27.9).

The Book of Exodus in the Literature of Hellenistic Judaism

played a significant role primarily in the writings of representatives of the Alexandrian tradition. Jewish historians Eupolemus and Artapan, in polemics with pagan authors, contrasted the reports about I. containing fantastic details in the writings of Hecataeus of Miletus and Manetho with a more reliable and verified story, trying to correctly convey the facts of the Holy. history and endear the Gentiles to the Jews. According to Artapan, Pharaoh granted freedom to the Jews under the influence of the disasters that befell Egypt. He also cites the testimony of local residents that Moses had the habit of observing sea currents; this allowed him to lead the people unharmed through the dry passages into the sea. According to Artapan, a special explanation is needed for the fact that the Heb. During the reign of Egypt, the people “robbed... the Egyptians” (Exodus 12:35-36). According to Artapan, precious things were taken from the inhabitants of Egypt as a loan (Euseb. Praep. evang. IX 27, 34 sq.). Turning to the interpretation of this passage, Josephus calls jewelry gifts that the Egyptians gave to the Jews, “partly in order to hasten their exodus, partly also in memory of mutual good neighborly relations” (Ios. Flav. Antiq. II 14. 6). According to Philo, this verse apparently referred to compensation to the Jews for their slave labor (Philo. De vita Mos. I 141). In Christ. authors, this issue was also the subject of discussion (Iren. Adv. haer. IV 30. 1-4; Tertull. Adv. Marcion. II 20; Clem. Alex. Strom. I 23. 157. 2 sq.).

Josephus Flavius repeatedly turned to the events of Egypt for polemical purposes; he spoke out against those Egypt. historians who critically examined the personality of Moses (Ios. Flav. Contr. Ap. I 279 sq.). In “Jewish Antiquities,” following Artapan, he gives his own version of the story about I., supplementing it with aggadic legends (Idem. Antiq. II - III). At the same time, he, like Artapan, is characterized by a rationalistic approach. Thus, Josephus Flavius noticed that the passage of the Jews through the Krasnoe m. turned out to be possible both by the will of God and “by itself” (ταὐτόματον - Ibid. II 16.5), and supplemented this message only with him with a well-known legend about how one day The Pamphylian Sea (a large bay of the Mediterranean Sea off the southern coast of Asia) retreated before the army of Alexander the Great. The miracle at Marah (Exodus 15.23 ff.) is explained by the fact that Moses ordered strong men from the people to draw up the “bitter” water from an abandoned well in order to gain access to purer sources of water (Ios. Flav. Antiq. III 1. 2) . Josephus also provides early evidence of liturgical remembrance of I., when he speaks of the need to prayerfully thank (μαρτυρεῖν) twice a day, morning and evening, for the blessings he bestowed on the Jews. people upon liberation from Egypt (Ibid. IV 8.13).

The drama “Exodus” (᾿Εξαγωγή) written in iambic trimeter in 269 verses by the poet Ezekiel (Ezerkiel) (2nd century BC), an Alexandrian Jew, has been preserved. Excerpts from it are given by Clement of Alexandria and Eusebius of Caesarea (Clem. Alex. Strom. I 155. 1; Euseb. Praep. evang. IX 28. 1 sq.). The author of the poem, on behalf of Moses, retells the events of I., relying on Jewish traditions (Jacobson H. The Exagoge of Ezekiel. Camb., 1983. P. 36-37; OTP. Vol. 2. P. 803-819).

Among the writers of Hellenistic Judaism, Philo of Alexandria paid the most attention to the events of Israel. In the 1st book - “On the Life of Moses”, he, following literally the text of St. Scripture, told about the life of Moses from his birth to his ascent to Mount Sinai, the presentation is predominantly of a moral and edifying nature. The history of Egypt is analyzed in detail. executions (Philo. De vita Mos. I 96-143), crossing the Red Sea (Ibid. I 167-180), miracles in the desert (Ibid. I 181-213). Philo of Alexandria believed that God reveals His will in the events of Israel primarily through “signs and wonders” (διὰ σημείων κα τεράτων - Ibid. I 95), therefore, in his retelling of the biblical story about the passage of the Jews across the sea, he emphasized the description of miraculous phenomena (Ibid. I 177-180; II 246-257). In the 2nd book, under the influence of Hellenistic exegesis, Philo of Alexandria allegorically interpreted the main events of Heb. history and cult establishments of the Law of Moses, emphasizing for apologetic purposes the connection between Heb. holidays and seasons (Ibid. II 221 sq.). In his other work, preserved mainly in Armenian. translation, “Questions and solutions in Exodum” (Quaestiones et solutionses in Exodum; critical edition: Philon d "Alexandrie. Quaestiones et solutions in Exodum / Introd., trad. et notes par A. Terian. P., 1992), talks about importance for the correct interpretation of the establishment of the letters of the text under study. Initially, this work consisted of 6 books, which, according to J. Royce, were compiled in accordance with 8 sections of the book of Exodus from the Babylonian Jewish lectionary (Royse J. R. The Original). Structure of Philo's Quaestiones // Studia Philonica. Chicago, 1976. Vol. 4. P. 61-62). Preserved in Armenian version the text contains commentaries in 2 books on the following verses: Philo.

The most striking examples of allegorical interpretation of the book. The Exodus is distributed by Philo throughout the corpus of his works. Following his own exegetical method, he interpreted the events of Egypt primarily as stages of the ascetic formation of the soul: for him Egypt means the immoderate, ardent part of the soul, which seeks to absorb the mind (I dem. De agr. 88-89), and is also a symbol passions; Moses, the “purest mind,” is called upon to lead the people from here, that is, the souls of men (I dem. De cong. erud. 83-84; 132, 163). Egypt sages are symbols of false conclusions, which act against the good motives of the soul, and sophistry, which is absorbed, like the rod of Aaron, by true wisdom (I dem. De migr. Abr. 76-85). Egypt the executions are a depiction of a way of life organized according to the demands of the flesh; the water of the river turned into blood (Exodus 7.21) symbolizes a false word (or reproach), which destroys fish, i.e. thoughts (τὰ νοήματα) (Philo. Somn. 2. 259 sq.). Death of Egypt. firstborn means the destruction of passions (Ibid. 2.266). The pillar of fire that accompanied the Jews during their journey through the desert symbolizes λόγος, which protects ascetics from the enemies pursuing them (I dem. Quis rer. div. 203-205). The passage of Israel through the Red Sea is a victory over carnal passions, their symbol is Pharaoh with an army (I dem. Somn. 2. 277-281; I dem. De agr. 79-83; I dem. De ebrietate. 111). Moses' transformation of the "bitter" water of Marah into sweet demonstrates that the virtue inherent in us by nature only with the help of love (or rather attraction - ἔρως) for good (or for work) becomes noble and sweet, achieving perfection (I dem. De poster. Cain 156. 7; De cong. 163-166; The springs of Elim water (Exodus 15:27) symbolize the entry into a virtuous life. First of all, it is necessary to approach the 12 sources, which are a cycle of preparations (προπαιδεύματα) for virtue, and then wreaths from the branches of 70 palm trees, in turn, become a reward and decoration for those who have entered the path of virtue (P hilo. De fuga et invent. 183- 187). Manna is a symbol of heavenly food for the soul, that is, wisdom - σοφία (I dem. Leg. all. 3. 161-171; I dem. Quis rer. div. 191; I dem. De cong. erud. 174; I dem. De fuga et 137; The hands that Moses extended during the battle with Amalek signify the elevation of the spirit, which ensures victory over passions (I dem. Leg. all. 3. 185-186). Moses' entry into darkness (v. e. the inaccessible region of ideas about Being) is an indication of the progress of the God-loving soul in the knowledge that God resides on the other side of every image (I dem. Quis rer. div. 251; I dem. De mut. nom. 7; I dem .De poster. 14).

The “Book of Biblical Antiquities” (Liber antiquitatum biblicarum), attributed to Philo of Alexandria, specifically describes miracles during I.; the retreat of the waters of the sea correlates with the division of the waters in Gen. 1. 6 (Ps.-Philo. Bibl. Antiq. 10. 5). According to this work, God showed Moses the tree of life and broke off a branch from it, which was used as a staff to perform miracles (Ibid. 11.15); the staff became for Moses a sign of the covenant, similar to how the rainbow was a symbol of the covenant with Noah (Ibid. 19.11). God also showed Moses the heavenly domains where the manna reserves were located (Ibid. 19.10).

I. in rabbinic Judaism

The theme of I. is central to the Jewish liturgical tradition. Recollection of the event I. as the moment of the birth of the Hebrew. people is enshrined in the main Heb. prayer "Shema Israel", which is prescribed to be performed twice a day. The third part of the prayer, based on Numbers 15. 37-41, contains a reference to I. (see instructions about it: Shemot Rabbah. 21. 3; Berakhot. 1. 1-2; 2. 2). Thus, the memory () of I. is connected with the confession of faith. The Saturday prayer Kiddush presents the connection between I. and the creation of the world: in parallel verses there is a mention of the freedom granted thanks to I. to the Jews from Egypt, and the separation of the 7th day, Saturday, from the remaining days of creation.

The memory of the events of I. lies at the basis of the celebration of the Passover Seder. In the rite of the Easter haggadah, this is reflected not only in the ritual reproduction of the events of Easter night, but also in the praising of the Creator, repeated throughout the entire succession of the holiday, for the fact that He chose Israel and showed various benefits to it during Israel: “If he had not brought out our fathers from Egypt, then we, and our children, and our children’s children would remain slaves of Pharaoh in Egypt” (Easter Haggadah. 5. 3: “We were slaves...”). One of the sections lists 14 benefits provided by the Lord to Israel during the reign of Israel; each mention of a benefit ends with the refrain that it in itself, even without the performance of others, “would be sufficient for us.” Each participant in the celebration proclaims this praise 14 times (Ibid. 5. 15: “How many blessings ...”). The most important aspect of Easter praise is the theme of liberation from Egypt. slavery and glorification of God, who “brought us from slavery to freedom, from sorrow to joy, from mourning to celebration, from darkness to light, from enslavement to liberation” (Ibid. 5. 18: “And therefore we are obliged...”) . This theme is also present in the prayer for eating matzah - the “bread of freedom.” The actualization of the event of I. in the Easter festival is heard in the requirement addressed to the representative of each subsequent generation, “to look at himself as if he himself, personally, came out of Egypt” (Ibid. 5. 17: “In every generation...”) . All who celebrate Easter should think about how worthy they are of participating in the event of I., lest they turn out to be that wicked son who would not be brought out of Egypt (Ibid. 5. 6: “Four Sons”).

The most complete aggadic midrash on the book. The Exodus is “Shemot Rabba” (X-XII centuries), it consists of 52 sections and is divided into 2 main parts. The first part, written in Hebrew, contains a commentary on Exodus 1-10 (sections 1-14) and provides a sequential explanation of each verse. The content of Shemot Rabbah depends on the Babylonian Talmud and the midrashim of Tanchum. The second part (sections 15-52) is devoted to the interpretation of Exodus 12-40 and is written primarily in Mishnaic Hebrew with elements of Galilean Aram. language, is associated with a tradition dating back to the Jerusalem Talmud.

The theological understanding of I. presented in the OT is processed in the rabbinic tradition, which gives this event the status of the highest and most significant revelation for all generations of Israelis. It is specially noted that a necessary condition for Israel and the passage of Jews through the Red Sea was trust in God (Shemot Rabba. 22.3; Midrash Tehellim. 106.2). The liberation of the Israelites from slavery implied the subsequent conclusion of the covenant at Sinai and the acceptance of the Divine commandments (Kiddushin 21b).

The angels in heaven were not supposed to sing when the Egyptians were killed. the firstborn and during the passage through the sea, until the children of Israel sing a song of thanks (Shemot Rabba. 23. 7; Megilla. 10b; Sanhedrin. 39b). In some midrashim, Jews are forbidden to rejoice at the death of their enemies in the waters of the sea (Yalkut Mishleh. 960), and the command of Proverbs 24.17 “Do not rejoice when your enemy falls” was attributed to the death of the Egyptians (Pesikta de Rav Kahana. 189a). The importance of the event I. in the rabbinic tradition is emphasized through hyperbole: for example, it is said that even “the slave girl, while crossing the sea, saw something that neither Isaiah nor Ezekiel contemplated” (Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael. 3). The event of I. justifies the need to fulfill the instructions of the law, especially about the use of the correct measure of weights and the prohibition of interest (Lev 19.36); the fulfillment of these commandments means the recognition of the event of I. (Sifre Kedoshim. VIII 10; Sifre Behar. V 4). The liberation of Israel from slavery, which took place on Passover night, points to Bud. deliverance of the Hebrews people (Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael. 14; cf.: Targum of Pseudo-Jonathan. Ex. 12. 42), and the event of I. acquires an eschatological dimension: in a fragment of the targum on Ex. 15. 18 it is said that in the last times “Moses will go on a journey from the desert, and the Messiah from Rome” (The Frament-Targums of the Pentateuch. R., 1980. Vol. 1. P. 80). The memory of I. will be relevant in messianic times (Berakhot. 12b).

Event I. in the New Testament

Allusions to I. are already contained in the first chapters of the narratives of the Synoptic Gospels. Elder Zechariah’s song of praise dedicated to the birth of John the Baptist reflects certain themes related to I.’s theology: “...God... visited His people and created deliverance for them” (Luke 1.68) in order to save them from enemies and remember the covenant with him (Luke 1. 71-72; cf.: Ex 3. 16 ff.; 6. 4 ff.; Ps 104. 8 ff.; 105. 10, 45). The story of the killing of infants by order of King Herod is reminiscent of Pharaoh’s order to destroy the Hebrews. firstborn (Exodus 1:16; Matthew 2:16). Christ Himself, being the firstborn Son of God, is saved from the persecution of Herod in Egypt, from which he was then called, like Israel, the firstborn of the Lord, in the time of I. (Matthew 2.14 ff.; cf.: Exodus 4.22; OS 11. 1). The words from the Gospel of Mark that accompany the beginning of the ministry of John the Baptist: “Behold, I am sending My angel before Your face, who will prepare Your way before You” (Mark 1.2) - go back to Exodus 23.20: “Behold, I am sending before You with you an Angel to guard you on the way...” Possible associations with I. can be found in the description of the Baptism of the Savior to St. John the Baptist, which marks the advent of the era of the new I. (i.e., salvation). It is said that “having been baptized, Jesus immediately came up [ἀνέβη] from the water” (Matthew 3:16). It is possible that the verb ἀναβαίνω contains a reference to Hebrew. which is used to designate I. (Exodus 13:18) and entry into the promised land (Deut 1:21).

The story about the temptations of Christ and about the 40 days of His fast in the desert (Matthew 4:1) is connected with the theme of I., since it recalls the 40 years of Israel’s wandering in the desert and the 40 days of Moses’ stay on Mount Sinai (Exodus 24:18) . The parallels between the miracles performed by Jesus during his earthly ministry and Moses during his wanderings in the desert are reinforced by the words: “But if I cast out demons by the finger of God, then the kingdom of God has certainly come upon you” (Luke 11:20). The expression “finger of God” goes back to Exodus 8:19, which tells of the miracles of Moses before Pharaoh. The Sermon on the Mount and the giving of the gospel commandments recall the giving of the law at Mount Sinai and emphasize the role of Jesus Christ as the 2nd Moses. The disciples of Christ are called “the little flock” (Luke 12:32), which perhaps implies a reference to the image of God leading the people, like a flock, through the desert during the Holy Age (Ps 76:21; 77:52; 79:2) .

The story of the Transfiguration of the Lord on Mount Tabor is filled with I. symbolism: like Christ and his disciples, Moses ascends Mount Sinai, accompanied by his companions (Exodus 24.1; Mark 9.2). After communicating with God, Moses’ face shone with rays, as did Jesus’ clothes (Exodus 34:29; Mark 9:3). The apostles hear the Divine voice from the cloud (cf. Exodus 24.16): “This is My beloved Son; Listen to Him” (Mark 9:7), which reflects the words from Deuteronomy 18:15, spoken on Mount Sinai: “The Lord your God will raise up for you a prophet from among you, from your brethren, like me; listen to Him.” The Evangelist Luke speaks about the ministry of Jesus Christ as a new I., who notes that Moses and Elijah, who appeared at Tabor, “spoke about His exodus, which He had to accomplish in Jerusalem” (Luke 9.31). The culmination of the theme of the new I. in the Gospels occurs in the story of the last celebration of Easter by Jesus Christ with his disciples in Jerusalem (Mk 14. 1 ff.). Heb. Easter, which marks Israel from the land of slavery, becomes in the NT an eschatological sacrifice, in which the Lord, with His blood of the new Lamb, opens the way to the salvation of the faithful. The key words of the Last Supper, pronounced by the Savior during the establishment of the sacrament of the Eucharist, “this is My Blood of the new covenant” (Mark 14.24), are a reflection of the words about the blood of the covenant, which sealed God’s covenant with the saved people brought out of Egypt (Exodus 24.8).

In the prologue of the Gospel of John, Jesus Christ appears as the successor of Moses, surpassing him in the matter of saving the human race (John 1. 17-18; cf. Exodus 33. 20). Allusions to Christ as the true sacrificial Lamb are found in John 1. 29, 36, especially in the words at His crucifixion: “For this happened, that the Scripture might be fulfilled: Let not His bone be broken” (John 19. 36). The image of the Savior as the heavenly Bridegroom (John 3.29) is associated with the reflection of the theme of I. in those books of the Old Testament, where the Lord appears as the beloved of the people of Israel (Hos. 2.14 ff.; Jer. 2.2; Ezek 16). Just as in the OT, the Lord becomes the shepherd of the new Israel (John 10:2 ff.; Ps 79:2 ff.). The Lord's teaching about Himself as the bread of life in the Gospel of John is presented in the context of the memory of the giving of manna from heaven in the time of I. (John 6. 31-40; cf. Exodus 15-16).

Most of the speech is archdiac. Stephen before the Sanhedrin in the book. Acts of St. of the Apostles is dedicated to the retelling of the events of I. (Acts 7). Thus, the stiff-necked Israelites are compared, who, having not listened to Moses in the time of I., did not follow the provisions of the law, and their heirs, who even now, having acted like their fathers, perverted the law and became traitors and murderers of the Righteous, i.e. . Jesus Christ (Acts 7:52). The New Testament concept of the Church also goes back to the image of I., the prototype of which was the “gathering in the wilderness” (ἐκκλησία ἐν τῇ ἐρήμῳ) (Acts 7.38; cf. Acts 20.28; Exodus 15.16).

In the 1st Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians, Christians appear as the new Israel, redeemed by the new Passover Lamb - Christ; they are called to become a new test for the new Passover (1 Cor 5:7). This new theology of Easter is revealed in the doctrine of the Eucharist (1 Cor 11. 23-24): just as the Jewish Passover was celebrated in memory of the saving acts of God in the time of I., so the Eucharist, the new Easter, is created in memory of the saving death of Christ - the new Passover Lamb. The educational nature of the events of I. is presented in especially detail in 1 Cor. 10. Mn. the Jews, who were rescued from the waters of the Red Sea and fed with spiritual food in the desert, ended up in the afterlife. “lust after evil,” and therefore they became a negative example for Christians. According to app. Paul, in a figurative sense, Christ was with the Israelites in the form of a “rock of living water,” but God did not favor all of the people. Formal participation in the saving acts of God in history itself, that is, in history, is not a guarantee of salvation. The interpretation of the event I. becomes a call to Christians to be steadfast in the faith and not give in to temptation (1 Cor. 10. 12 ff.). The salvation of the Israelites through baptism “into Moses in the cloud and in the sea” becomes a type of Christ. Baptism (1 Cor 10. 1-2; see: Rom 1. 1 ff.).

A comparison of 2 genera (generations) within one community of the chosen, based on the events of I., is found in the Epistle to the Hebrews (3.7 - 4.13). The heirs of those Israelites who were deceived in heart (Heb. 3.10), with whom the Lord was angry for 40 years in the wilderness, are severely condemned; they may be late to enter “His rest” (Heb. 4:1). The superiority of the New Covenant, made on Mount Zion in the heavenly Jerusalem and making great demands on believers, over the former covenant, made on “a touchable mountain and burning with fire,” is emphasized in Hebrews 12. 18 ff. Brief references to the events of I. are also found in Jude 5 and 2 Peter 2. 1 - in the story of the false prophets (cf.: Exodus 25. 16).

Mn. the images from the Revelation of John the Theologian are characterized by symbolism that goes back to I. The Church is presented as a meeting of “kings and priests” (Rev 1.6; 5.10; cf.: Exodus 19.6); there is a mention of the “hidden manna” prepared for the elect (Rev 2.17; cf. Exodus 16), and there is a promise that the name of the winner will not be removed from the book of life (Rev 3.5; cf. Exodus 32. 32). The contemplator of revelation is called to the Divine throne by the sound (voice) of a trumpet (Rev 4.1; cf. Exodus 19.19), which is accompanied by lightning and thunder (Rev 4.5; 8.5; cf. Exodus 19 . 16). The description of the 7 apocalyptic disasters in Rev. 8.7 - 9.21 is based on the story of Egypt. executions (Exodus 7-11). The story about the “bitter” waters of Marah (Exodus 15:23) may have been reflected in the description of the waters poisoned by the star with “wormwood” (Rev 8:11). The eschatological vision of the new I. is presented in the image of a glass sea mixed with fire, on which, standing unharmed, those who defeated the beast sing to God the victorious song of Moses (Rev 15. 2-3).

The Book of Exodus in the Exegesis of the Ancient Church

From the beginning of Christ. writing, its authors paid great attention to the interpretation of events. Thanks to the works of authors of the 2nd-3rd centuries. sschmch. Clement of Rome (Clem. Rom. Ep. I ad Cor. 43, 53), martyr. Justin the Philosopher (Iust. Martyr. Dial. 90-93), schmch. Irenaeus of Lyons (Iren. Adv. haer. IV 30-31), Tertullian (Tertull. De bapt. 8-9), as well as the “Epistle of Barnabas” (Barnaba. Ep. 4. 12, 14-15) in Christ. The exegetical tradition introduces an extensive typological interpretation of the events of I. as fulfilled in Christ and in His Church.

Not a single complete (for each verse) commentary on the book has been preserved from patristic writing. Exodus. The greatest interest in the surviving great works was, for example, the interpretation of Exodus 12, and chapters containing lists of names or detailed descriptions of ritual regulations were less likely to attract the attention of commentators. Most of the interpretations are contained in various works that are not directly related by title to the subject of I. (for a list of individual works in Greek and Latin, see: CPG. Vol. 5. P. 116-117, 118; CPL. P. 777) . Numerous surviving allusions to the book. The outcome or quotes from it were due to the importance of this topic for Christ. theology (for an indication of 9 thousand quotations from the book of Exodus in the works of the Holy Fathers, see, for example, in: Biblia Patristica: Index des citations et allusions bibliques dans la littérature patristique. P., 1975. Vol. 1. P. 88-103; 1977. Vol. 2. P. 99-112; 1980. Vol. 59-75; 4. P. 51-60; 165; 1995. Vol. 6. P. 49-58; 2000. Vol. 56-58).

In the works of St. fathers of the IV-V centuries. A small number of voluminous commentaries have survived on the entire Pentateuch, including the book. Exodus: 3 in Latin and 3 in Greek. language. The first extensive commentary on Greek. language belongs to Origen; 13 of his homilies have been preserved in I. in lat. translation of Rufinus of Aquileia (Orig. In Exod. hom. 13 - CPG, N 1414), which are catechetical teachings intended for those preparing for baptism. This interpretation became a new stage in the exegesis of the book. Exodus: Origen considered the events relating to the I. Jews from Egypt, their wanderings through the desert to the Promised Land, to be a symbolic description of the path of the soul to God. He not only examined the most significant events described in the book in the light of allegorical exegesis (the basic principles of which are borrowed from the ancient tradition), but also sought to discover symbolic meaning in every detail of the biblical narrative. Thus, Origen inherited and introduced into Christ. tradition methods of exegesis of Philo of Alexandria. Thus, Origen is the first in patristic exegesis to reveal in more detail the theme of spirituality.

In separate homilies on the book. Numbers Origen interpreted the 42 stops of the Israelites during their wanderings in the desert as 42 stages of human spiritual growth; this interpretation was based on the etymology of the place names of these stops (Orig. In Num. 27). Among the catenas, fragments of Origen's scholia to the book have been preserved. Exodus (Orig. In Exodum excerpta - CPG, N 1413). I. Origen indirectly addresses the topic in 2 books “On Easter”, which may be parts of a larger unpreserved work (Orig è ne. Sur la Pâque / Publ.

The Exodus of the Jews is one of the most widely covered events in the Bible, which, however, does not lead to a unanimous opinion among Bible scholars about the reliability of these events.

The tradition of Moses leading the Jews out of Egypt has had a particular influence on the theology of certain movements in Christianity. For example, Protestants, fleeing persecution, often sought moral support in tradition; Catholics used the exodus of the Jews as a prototype of the search for political freedom.

Background to the exodus of the Jews from Egypt.

The family of Israel moved to Egypt because of the famine that reigned in Canaan. According to the Old Testament, the Jews lived in Egypt for over 400 years. During this time, their numbers increased significantly. The book of Exodus says:

...the children of Israel became fruitful and multiplied, and increased, and became exceedingly strong, and the land was filled with them. (Book of Exodus, chapter 1)

A new pharaoh ascended the throne, who feared that the people of Israel might eventually conquer the local population, and therefore sent the Jews to grueling labor to reduce their numbers. The next measure Pharaoh took was to kill the Hebrew boys. He ordered the midwives to kill every boy born into a Jewish family, but the women were God-fearing and did not carry out the cruel order of Pharaoh. Then the pharaoh simply ordered the boys to be drowned.

At this time, Moses was born, who was destined to lead the people of Israel from Egyptian captivity. Moses' mother, in order to save her son, put him in a basket and sent him down the river. Moses was found by Pharaoh's daughter and taken to the palace.

Moses grew up in the house of Pharaoh. One day he saw an Egyptian overseer treating one of the Jews harshly at hard labor. Moses stood up for the poor fellow and killed the overseer. Pharaoh ordered Moses to be killed for this act, but he managed to escape to the land of Midian, where he married the daughter of a local priest.

Some time later, the Lord appeared to Moses in a burning bush and ordered him to return to Egypt and lead the Jews from Egyptian captivity to the Promised Land. Moses returns to Egypt and appears before Pharaoh, demanding the release of the people of Israel. Pharaoh refuses and then God sends the Ten Plagues of Egypt to the country. You can read more about the 10 plagues in or directly in the chapters of the Bible ( Book of Exodus, chapters 7 - 12).

Crossing the Red Sea

After this event, the Jews left Egypt. Apparently there were at least 600 thousand men, and apparently at least one and a half million in total. Pharaoh chased after the Jews, but the Lord helped his people and the waters of the sea parted, allowing Moses and His people to pass, but when the people of Israel passed, the waters closed again and led to the death of Pharaoh’s army, which was following on the heels of the Jews.

… And the Lord delivered Israel that day from the hand of the Egyptians, and the [sons of] Israel saw the Egyptians dead on the seashore. (Exodus chapter 14)

After crossing the Red Sea, the Israelites believed even more in the Lord and in his prophet Moses. They sang a song of praise to the Lord - Exodus chapter 15.

The wanderings of the Jews in the desert under the leadership of Moses.

Three months after the exodus from Egypt, Moses led the Jews to Mount Sinai. Here God's chosen people witnessed the appearance of the Lord. Here, on Mount Sinai, God re-entered the Covenant with His people and gave them a large number of laws described in Chapters 21 – 24 of the Book of Exodus. These laws were intended to regulate the everyday relations of Jews.

The Jews remained at Mount Sinai for a year. During this time, a camp temple (tabernacle) was built here, and priests from the Levites were appointed. Aaron became the high priest. Here was the first census of Jews, according to which among them there were more than 603 thousand healthy men who were capable of fighting.

The Exodus of the Jews from Egypt - the camps of the Exodus.

It is known that the exodus of Jews from Egypt lasted 40 long years. The reason for this was that the people did not fully believe in the power of the Lord. When, having left Mount Sinai, the people of Israel crossed the Paran desert and approached the border of Hanaan, the Jews doubted that the Lord would help them defeat the Canaanites. For this, God condemned them to a forty-year wandering in the desert, during which everyone who was in captivity in Egypt died. When the Jews came to the Jordan, it was already a new generation.

If you believe the documentary hypothesis, the list of places visited during the exodus of the Jews from Egypt was not included in the original text of the Pentateuch and was added later.

The path of the Jews was not easy, but the Lord helped them not to die of hunger and thirst by sending them.

Map of the Exodus of the Jews from Egypt.

Despite some disagreement between theologians and historians, today there are approximate maps of the exodus. Moreover, numerous studies are still ongoing in which scientists, interpreting the text of the Bible, are trying to reconstruct the route along which Moses led the Jews out of Egypt.

Forty years after leaving Egypt, the Israelites circled Moab, defeated the Amorites and reached the banks of the Jordan River near Mount Nebo. Here Moses died, appointing Joshua as his successor.

The historicity of the Jewish Exodus.

Previously, the biblical account of how Moses led the Jews out of Egypt was perceived as a documented accurate description. This point of view was the main one until the beginning of the twentieth century. Today, there are several points of view on the historicity of the exodus of the Jews, described in the Old Testament.

The events of the exodus are completely reliable and correspond to real history, although they have undergone poetic reinterpretation in the Bible (the point of view of the school of Biblical archeology).
The events of the exodus took place, but were on a smaller scale and over time, having degenerated into a folk epic, which is characterized by exaggeration and exaltation, they became the basis of the biblical tradition of the exodus (the point of view of many Western biblical scholars).
The events of the exodus are a myth, that is, exclusively folk art that has no historical basis.
The legend about the exodus of the Jews is fictitious and has exclusively theological significance. It was invented in the 5th-4th centuries BC. e among the Israeli priests (the point of view of biblical revisionism).

The year of the exodus of the Jews from Egypt.

Many people are interested in when Moses led the Jews out of Egypt, what year is considered the year of the Exodus. The Bible does not indicate the time of the exodus, which, of course, has given rise to many theories regarding the possible year when Moses led the people of Israel out of Egypt. Most versions cover the period between 2100 and 1050 BC. e.

Numerous attempts have been made to deduce the year of the exodus from the text of the Bible. Based on the text :

In the four hundred and eightieth year after the children of Israel came out of the land of Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon's reign over Israel, in the month Zif, which is the second month, he began to build the temple of the Lord. ( Third Book of Kings, chapter 6),

then we can conclude that the year of exodus is 1446. However, this date is often criticized, due to the fact that the number 480 is very symbolic; it is considered as the result of multiplying the number 40, symbolic for the entire Pentateuch of Moses, by 12 - the number of tribes of Israel. Moreover, if we turn to the chronology of the Biblical Books of Judges, then the date will not be confirmed.

Let's consider several more versions of the dating of the exodus, not based on the text of the Bible:

Emmanuel Anati believes that the exodus of the Jews took place around 2100 BC. e. He identifies Mount Sinai with Mount Har-Karkom, where the temple (tabernacle) existed and cult practice was carried out at this time. Mount Har-Karkom was later abandoned. This is entirely consistent with the facts described in the Bible: the Jews came to Mount Sinai, where they lived for a year, building a camp temple there and appointing priests.

It must be said that almost none of the historians, archaeologists and biblical scholars support this point of view due to the fact that there is no data that the people of Israel existed at this time, as well as archaeological data on the emergence of a new ethnic group in this region.

Josephus Flavius believed that the exodus of Jews from Egypt took place between 1700 and 1800 BC. e. In his point of view, he relied on the works of the historian Manetho, which, unfortunately, have not reached our time. Manetho described a certain Hyksos people who created their kingdom in the Nile Delta and were subsequently expelled by the Egyptian pharaoh. It is with the Hyksos that Josephus identifies the people of Israel.

Henry Hall, a famous Egyptian archaeologist, generally supported the theory of Josephus, but believed that these events occurred somewhat later - around 1400 BC. e.

William Albright believes that the Exodus of the Jews occurred between 1250 and 1200. This point of view has a large number of followers among archaeologists, who note the emergence of a new type of ceramics, and, therefore, a new ethnic group in the region.

It is known for certain that the Israeli ethnic group already existed in Canaan around 1210 BC. e. Proof of this fact is the Merneptah Stele, also known as the Israelite Stele. The stela is the earliest ancient Egyptian document to mention "I.si.ri.ar" or "Isirial", which is interpreted by scholars as "Israel".

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