What is the charge of a proton and electron? Proton is an elementary particle
Until the beginning of the 20th century, scientists believed that an atom was the smallest indivisible particle of matter, but this turned out to be wrong. In fact, at the center of the atom is its nucleus with positively charged protons and neutral neutrons, and negatively charged electrons rotate in orbitals around the nucleus (this model of the atom was proposed in 1911 by E. Rutherford). It is noteworthy that the masses of protons and neutrons are almost equal, but the mass of an electron is about 2000 times less.
Although an atom contains both positively and negatively charged particles, its charge is neutral, because an atom has the same number of protons and electrons, and differently charged particles neutralize each other.
Later, scientists found out that electrons and protons have the same amount of charge, equal to 1.6 10 -19 C (C is a coulomb, a unit of electric charge in the SI system.
Have you ever thought about the question - what number of electrons corresponds to a charge of 1 C?
1/(1.6·10 -19) = 6.25·10 18 electrons
Electric power
Electric charges influence each other, which manifests itself as electric force.
If a body has an excess of electrons, it will have a total negative electrical charge, and vice versa - if there is a deficiency of electrons, the body will have a total positive charge.
By analogy with magnetic forces, when like-charged poles repel and oppositely charged poles attract, electric charges behave in a similar way. However, in physics it is not enough to simply talk about the polarity of an electric charge; its numerical value is important.
To find out the magnitude of the force acting between charged bodies, it is necessary to know not only the magnitude of the charges, but also the distance between them. The force of universal gravitation has already been considered previously: F = (Gm 1 m 2)/R 2
- m 1, m 2- masses of bodies;
- R- the distance between the centers of the bodies;
- G = 6.67 10 -11 Nm 2 /kg- universal gravitational constant.
As a result of laboratory experiments, physicists derived a similar formula for the force of interaction of electric charges, which was called Coulomb's law:
F = kq 1 q 2 /r 2
- q 1, q 2 - interacting charges, measured in C;
- r is the distance between charges;
- k - proportionality coefficient ( SI: k=8.99·10 9 Nm 2 Cl 2; SSSE: k=1).
- k=1/(4πε 0).
- ε 0 ≈8.85·10 -12 C 2 N -1 m -2 - electrical constant.
According to Coulomb's law, if two charges have the same sign, then the force F acting between them is positive (the charges repel each other); if the charges have opposite signs, the acting force is negative (charges attract each other).
How enormous the force of a charge of 1 C is can be judged using Coulomb's law. For example, if we assume that two charges, each 1 C, are spaced at a distance of 10 meters from each other, then they will repel each other with force:
F = kq 1 q 2 /r 2 F = (8.99 10 9) 1 1/(10 2) = -8.99 10 7 N
This is a fairly large force, roughly comparable to a mass of 5600 tons.
Let's now use Coulomb's law to find out at what linear speed the electron rotates in a hydrogen atom, assuming that it moves in a circular orbit.
According to Coulomb's law, the electrostatic force acting on an electron can be equated to the centripetal force:
F = kq 1 q 2 /r 2 = mv 2 /r
Taking into account the fact that the mass of the electron is 9.1·10 -31 kg, and the radius of its orbit = 5.29·10 -11 m, we obtain the value 8.22·10 -8 N.
Now we can find the linear speed of the electron:
8.22·10 -8 = (9.1·10 -31)v 2 /(5.29·10 -11) v = 2.19·10 6 m/s
Thus, the electron of the hydrogen atom rotates around its center at a speed of approximately 7.88 million km/h.
In the section on the question What is the charge of a proton? given by the author European the best answer is charge of an electron with the opposite sign.
Answer from Corpuscular[guru]
q=1.6021917E-19 pendant (E-19 means 10 to the minus 19th power).
Answer from Outgrowth[newbie]
1.6* 10^(-19) cells or 1 electron
Answer from Staff[master]
Proton is an elementary particle. Belongs to hadrons, has spin 1/2, electric charge +1. Considered as a nucleon with isospin projection +1/2. Consists of three quarks (one d-quark and two u-quarks). Stable (lower limit on the lifetime is 2.9 × 1029 years regardless of the decay channel, 1.6 × 1033 years for decay into a positron and neutral pion). Proton mass 938.271 998±0.000 038 MeV or 1.00 727 646 688±0.00 000 000 013 a. e.m. or 1.672 622 964 ∙ 10−27 kg.
The nucleus of a hydrogen atom consists of one proton. A proton in the chemical sense is the nucleus of a hydrogen atom (more precisely, its light isotope - protium) without an electron. In physics, a proton is symbolized by the letter p. The chemical designation of a proton (positive hydrogen ion) is H+, the astrophysical designation is HII.
Protons (together with neutrons) are the main components of atomic nuclei. The charge of a nucleus is determined by the number of protons in it
Proton charge qpr = + e.
Electric charge of a proton=1.6*10^(–19) C
The mass of a proton is approximately 1840 times greater than the mass of an electron.
If you are familiar with the structure of an atom, then you probably know that an atom of any element consists of three types of elementary particles: protons, electrons, and neutrons. Protons combine with neutrons to form an atomic nucleus. Since the charge of a proton is positive, the atomic nucleus is always positively charged. the atomic nucleus is compensated by the cloud of other elementary particles surrounding it. The negatively charged electron is the component of the atom that stabilizes the charge of the proton. Depending on the surrounding atomic nucleus, an element can be either electrically neutral (in the case of an equal number of protons and electrons in the atom) or have a positive or negative charge (in the case of a deficiency or excess of electrons, respectively). An atom of an element that carries a certain charge is called an ion.
It is important to remember that it is the number of protons that determines the properties of elements and their position in the periodic table. D. I. Mendeleev. The neutrons contained in the atomic nucleus have no charge. Due to the fact that protons are correlated and practically equal to each other, and the mass of the electron is negligible compared to them (1836 times less), the number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom plays a very important role, namely: it determines the stability of the system and the speed of the nuclei. Contents neutrons determine the isotope (variety) of an element.
However, due to the discrepancy between the masses of charged particles, protons and electrons have different specific charges (this value is determined by the ratio of the charge of an elementary particle to its mass). As a result, the specific charge of the proton is 9.578756(27)·107 C/kg versus -1.758820088(39)·1011 for the electron. Due to the high specific charge, free protons cannot exist in liquid media: they can be hydrated.
The mass and charge of a proton are specific values that were established at the beginning of the last century. Which scientist made this - one of the greatest - discoveries of the twentieth century? Back in 1913, Rutherford, based on the fact that the masses of all known chemical elements are greater than the mass of the hydrogen atom by an integer number of times, suggested that the nucleus of the hydrogen atom is included in the nucleus of the atom of any element. Somewhat later, Rutherford conducted an experiment in which he studied the interaction of the nuclei of a nitrogen atom with alpha particles. As a result of the experiment, a particle flew out from the nucleus of the atom, which Rutherford called “proton” (from the Greek word “protos” - first) and assumed that it was the nucleus of the hydrogen atom. The assumption was proven experimentally by repeating this scientific experiment in a cloud chamber.
The same Rutherford in 1920 put forward a hypothesis about the existence in the atomic nucleus of a particle whose mass is equal to the mass of a proton, but does not carry any electric charge. However, Rutherford himself failed to detect this particle. But in 1932, his student Chadwick experimentally proved the existence of a neutron in the atomic nucleus - a particle, as predicted by Rutherford, approximately equal in mass to a proton. It was more difficult to detect neutrons, since they have no electrical charge and, accordingly, do not interact with other nuclei. The absence of charge explains the very high penetrating ability of neutrons.
Protons and neutrons are bound together in the atomic nucleus by a very strong force. Now physicists agree that these two elementary nuclear particles are very similar to each other. So, they have equal spins, and nuclear forces act on them absolutely equally. The only difference is that the proton has a positive charge, while the neutron has no charge at all. But since the electric charge has no meaning in nuclear interactions, it can only be considered as a kind of mark of the proton. If you deprive a proton of an electric charge, it will lose its individuality.
The neutron was discovered by the English physicist James Chadwick in 1932. The mass of a neutron is 1.675·10-27 kg, which is 1839 times the mass of an electron. A neutron has no electrical charge.
It is customary among chemists to use a unit of atomic mass, or dalton (d), approximately equal to the mass of a proton. The mass of a proton and the mass of a neutron are approximately equal to one unit of atomic mass.
2.3.2 Structure of atomic nuclei
It is known that there are several hundred different types of atomic nuclei. Together with the electrons surrounding the nucleus, they form atoms of different chemical elements.
Although the detailed structure of nuclei has not been established, physicists unanimously accept that nuclei can be considered to consist of protons and neutrons.
First, let's look at the deuteron as an example. This is the nucleus of a heavy hydrogen atom, or a deuterium atom. A deuteron has the same electrical charge as a proton, but its mass is approximately twice the electrical charge as a proton, but its mass is approximately twice that of a proton. It is believed that a deuteron consists of one proton and one neutron.
The nucleus of a helium atom, also called an alpha particle or helion, has an electrical charge twice that of a proton and a mass approximately four times that of a proton. An alpha particle is believed to consist of two protons and two neutrons.
2.4 Atomic orbital
An atomic orbital is the space around the nucleus in which an electron is most likely to be found.
Electrons moving in orbitals form electron layers, or energy levels.
The maximum number of electrons at an energy level is determined by the formula:
N = 2 n2 ,
Where n– principal quantum number;
N– maximum number of electrons.
Electrons that have the same principal quantum number are at the same energy level. Electrical levels characterized by values n = 1,2,3,4,5, etc., are designated as K, L, M, N, etc. According to the above formula, the first (closest to the nucleus) energy level can contain 2 electrons, the second – 8, the third – 18 electrons, etc.
The principal quantum number specifies the energy value in atoms. Electrons with the least amount of energy are in the first energy level (n=1). It corresponds to the s-orbital, which has a spherical shape. The electron that occupies the s orbital is called the s electron.
Starting from n=2, energy levels are divided into sublevels that differ from each other in the binding energy with the nucleus. There are s-, p-, d- and f-sublevels. Sublevels form, inhabited by the same shape.
The second energy level (n=2) has an s orbital (denoted 2s orbital) and three p orbitals (denoted 2p orbital). The 2s electron is further from the nucleus than the 1s electron and has more energy. Each 2p-orbital has the shape of a three-dimensional figure eight located on an axis perpendicular to the axes of the other two p-orbitals (designated px-, py-, pz orbitals). Electrons found in the p orbital are called p electrons.
At the third energy level there are three sublevels (3s, 3p, 3d). The d sublevel consists of five orbitals.
The fourth energy level (n=4) has 4 sublevels (4s, 4p, 4d and 4f). The f sublevel consists of seven orbitals.
According to the Pauli principle, one orbital can contain no more than two electrons. If there is one electron in an orbital, it is called unpaired. If there are two electrons, then they are paired. Moreover, paired electrons must have opposite spins. In a simplified way, spin can be represented as the rotation of electrons around their own axis clockwise and counterclockwise.
In Fig. Figure 3 shows the relative arrangement of energy levels and sublevels. It should be noted that the 4s sublevel is located below the 3d sublevel.
The distribution of electrons in atoms across energy levels and sublevels is depicted using electronic formulas, for example:
The number in front of the letter shows the number of the energy level, the letter shows the shape of the electron cloud, the number to the right above the letter shows the number of electrons with a given cloud shape.
In graphical electronic formulas, the atomic orbital is depicted as a square, the electron as an arrow (spin direction) (Table 1)
Chapter 9. Elementary charges. Electron and proton
§ 9.1. Electromagnetic mass and charge. Question about the essence of charge
In Chapter 5, we found out the mechanism of inertia, explained what “inertial mass” is and what electrical phenomena and properties of elementary charges determine it. In Chapter 7 we did the same for the phenomenon of gravity and “gravitational mass”. It turned out that both the inertia and gravity of bodies are determined by the geometric size of elementary particles and their charge. Since geometric size is a familiar concept, such fundamental phenomena as inertia and gravity are based on only one little-studied entity - “charge”. Until now, the concept of “charge” is mysterious and almost mystical. At first, scientists dealt only with macroscopic charges, i.e. charges of macroscopic bodies. At the beginning of the study of electricity in science, ideas about invisible “electrical fluids” were used, the excess or deficiency of which leads to the electrification of bodies. For a long time, the debate was only about whether it was one liquid or two of them: positive and negative. Then they found out that there are “elementary” charge carriers, electrons and ionized atoms, i.e. atoms with an excess electron or a missing electron. Even later, the “most elementary” positive charge carriers – protons – were discovered. Then it turned out that there are many “elementary” particles and many of them have an electric charge, and in terms of magnitude this charge is always
is a multiple of some minimum detectable portion of charge q 0 ≈ 1.602 10− 19 C. This
portion was called “elementary charge”. The charge determines the extent to which a body participates in electrical interactions and, in particular, electrostatic interactions. To date, there is no intelligible explanation of what an elementary charge is. Any reasoning on the topic that a charge consists of other charges (for example, quarks with fractional charge values) is not an explanation, but a scholastic “blurring” of the issue.
Let's try to think about charges ourselves, using what we have already established earlier. Let us remember that the main law established for charges is Coulomb’s law: the force of interaction between two charged bodies is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. It turns out that if we derive Coulomb’s law from any specific already studied physical mechanisms, we will thereby take a step in understanding the essence of charges. We have already said that elementary charges, in terms of interaction with the outside world, are completely determined by their electric field: its structure and its movement. And they said that after the explanation of inertia and gravity, there was nothing left in elementary charges except a moving electric field. And the electric field is nothing more than the disturbed states of vacuum, ether, plenum. Well, let's be consistent and try to reduce the electron and its charge to a moving field! We already guessed in Chapter 5 that a proton is completely similar to an electron, except for the sign of its charge and its geometric size. If, by reducing the electron to a moving field, we see that we can explain both the sign of the charge and the independence of the amount of charge of particles on size, then our task will be completed, at least to a first approximation.
§ 9.2. Strange currents and strange waves. Flat electron
First, let's consider an extremely simplified model situation (Fig. 9.1) of a ring charge moving along a circular path of radius r 0 . And let him in general
electrically neutral, i.e. in its center there is a charge of opposite sign. This is the so-called “flat electron”. We are not claiming that this is what a real electron is, we are just trying to understand for now whether it is possible to obtain an electrically neutral object equivalent to a free elementary charge in a flat, two-dimensional case. Let's try to create our charge from the associated charges of the ether (vacuum, plenum). Let, for definiteness, the charge of the ring be negative, and the ring moves clockwise (Fig. 9.1). In this case, the current I t flows counterclockwise. Let's select small
element of the ring charge dq and assign to it a small length dl. It is obvious that at each moment of time the element dq moves with tangential speed v t and normal acceleration a n. With such movement we can associate the total current of the element dI -
vector quantity. This value can be represented as a constant tangential current dI t, constantly “turning” its direction with the flow
time, that is, accelerated. That is, having normal acceleration dI&n. Difficulty
further consideration is due to the fact that until now in physics we have mainly considered alternating currents whose acceleration lay on the same straight line with the direction of the current itself. In this case, the situation is different: the current perpendicular to its acceleration. And what? Does this invalidate previously firmly established laws of physics?
Rice. 9.1. Ring current and its force effect on the test charge
Just as its magnetic field is associated with the elementary current itself (according to the Biot-Savart-Laplace law), so the acceleration of the elementary current is associated with the electric field of induction, as we showed in previous chapters. These fields exert a force action F on the external charge q (Fig. 9.1). Since the radius r 0 is finite, then the actions
The elementary currents of the right (according to the figure) half of the ring cannot be completely compensated by the opposite effect of the elementary currents of the left half.
Thus, between the ring current I and the external test charge q must
force interaction arises.
As a result, we found that we can speculatively create an object that, as a whole, will be completely electrically neutral in construction, but contain a ring current. What is a ring current in a vacuum? This is the bias current. We can imagine it as a circular motion of associated negative (or vice versa - positive) vacuum charges with complete rest of the opposite charges located
V center. It can also be imagined as a joint circular motion of positive and negative bound charges, but at different speeds, or along different radii or
V different sides... Ultimately, no matter how we look at the situation, it will be
reduce to a rotating electric field E, closed in a circle . This creates a magnetic field B, associated with the fact that currents flow and additional, not limited cr at hom electric field Eind , due to the fact that these currents accelerated.
This is exactly what we observe near real elementary charges (for example, electrons)! Here is our phenomenology of the so-called “electrostatic” interaction. Free charges (with fractional or other charge values) are not required to build an electron. It's enough just bound vacuum charges! Remember that according to modern concepts, a photon also consists of a moving electric field and is generally electrically neutral. If a photon is “bent” into a ring, then it will have a charge, since its electric field will now move not rectilinearly and uniformly, but accelerated. Now it is clear how charges of different signs are formed: if the field E in the “ring model” (Fig. 9.1) is directed from the center to the periphery of the particle, then the charge is of one sign, if vice versa, then of the other. If we open an electron (or positron), we create a photon. In reality, due to the need to conserve angular momentum, in order to turn a charge into a photon, you need to take two opposite charges, bring them together and ultimately get two electrically neutral photons. This phenomenon (annihilation reaction) is actually observed in experiments. So that's what a charge is - it's torque of electric field! Next, we will try to do formulas and calculations and derive Coulomb's law from the laws of induction applied to the case of alternating bias current.
§ 9.3. Coulomb's law as a consequence of Faraday's law of induction
Let us show that in a two-dimensional (flat) approximation, an electron in the electrostatic sense is equivalent to the circular motion of a current, which is equal in magnitude to the charge current q 0 moving along a radius r 0 with a speed equal to the speed of light c .
To do this, we divide the total circular current I (Fig. 9.1) into elementary currents Idl, calculate dE ind acting at the point where the test charge q is located, and integrate over the ring.
So, the current flowing in our case through the ring is equal to:
(9.1) I = q 0 v = q 0 c . 2 π r 0 2 π r 0
Since this current is curvilinear, that is, accelerated, it is
variables:
I. Misyuchenko |
God's Last Secret |
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dt 2 π r |
2πr |
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where a is the centripetal acceleration that each current element experiences when moving in a circle at speed c.
Substituting the expression known from kinematics for acceleration a = c 2, we obtain: r 0
q0 c2 |
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2πr |
2 π r 2 |
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It is clear that the derivative for the current element will be expressed by the formula:
dl = |
q0 c2 |
dl. |
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2πr |
2 π r 2 |
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As follows from the Biot-Savart-Laplace law, each current element Idl creates an “elementary” magnetic field at the point where the test charge is located:
(9.5) dB = |
I[ dl , rr ] |
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From Chapter 4 it is known that the alternating magnetic field of an elementary current generates an electric one:
(9.6) dE r = v r B dB r = |
μ 0 |
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I[dl,r] |
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Now let’s substitute into this expression the value of the derivative of the elementary circular current from (9.4):
dl sin(β) |
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dE = |
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2 π r 2 |
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It remains to integrate these elementary electric field strengths along the current contour, that is, over all dl that we have identified on the circle:
q0 c2 |
sin(β) |
r 2 ∫ |
sin(β) |
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E = ∫ dE = ∫ 8 π |
2 π r 2 |
dl = |
16 π 2 ε |
dl. |
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It is easy to see (Fig. 9.1) that integration over angles will give:
(9.9) ∫ |
sin(β) |
4 π r 2 |
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dl = 2 π r0 |
r 2 0 |
r 2 0 . |
Accordingly, the total value of the electric field strength of induction E ind from our curvilinear current at the point where the test charge is located will be equal.
